Incas were not afraid of the usually harsh Andean environment. They conquered the people and developed landscapes in different environments such as plains, mountains, deserts and tropical jungles. They are famous for their unique art and architecture. No matter where they conquer, they build exquisite and magnificent buildings. Their amazing adaptation to natural landscapes, including terraces, highways and hilltop settlements, continues to impress modern tourists in world-famous attractions such as Machu Picchu.
Historical overview
Like other ancient American cultures, the historical origins of the Incas can hardly be separated from their own founding myths. According to legend, in the beginning, the creator Velacocha came out of the Pacific Ocean and arrived at Lake Titicaca. He created the sun and all the nations. These first people were buried by God, and later they emerged from springs and rocks (sacred Paakkari) and returned to the world. To be exact, the Incas were born in Tiavanaco by Inti, the sun god. Therefore, they think that they are one of the few chosen "sons of the sun" and Inca rulers, and they are the representatives and incarnations of Indy on the earth. In another version of the myth, the first Inca came from a sacred cave called Tampu T'oqo or "House of Windows", which is located in Pacariqtambo, "Dawn Hotel" in the south of Cuzco. The first pair of humans were Manco Capac (or Manqo Qhapaq) and his sister (also his wife) Mama Oqllu (or Ocllo). Three brothers and sisters were born, and the group set out together to build their civilization. With the help of stone soldiers, they defeated the pururaucas. The first Incas finally settled in Cuzco Valley and Manco Capac, threw a gold rod into the ground and established the Inca capital which later became Cuzco.
40,000 Incas rule a territory with a population of 654.38+million. They speak more than 30 different languages.
More specific archaeological evidence shows that the first settlement in Cuzco Valley can actually be traced back to 4500 BC, when the hunter-gatherer community occupied the area. But Cusco became an important center only in the middle and late period (A.D. 1000- 1400). With the arrival of Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, the first great Inca leader, and the failure of Changka in 1438, the process of regional unification began in the late 4th century. After the early 5th century,/kloc-0, the Incas began to expand, looking for plunder and production resources, first to the south and then to all directions. They finally established an empire that extended to the Andes and conquered the Lupaca, Cora, Chimore and Wanka civilizations of these people along the way. Once established, the national tax and administrative management system began, which consolidated Cusco's power.
The rise of the Inca Empire was shocking. First of all, all the people who spoke Indo-Quechua (or Lu nasimi) were given a privileged position, and this aristocratic class subsequently slaughtered all the important people in the empire. In A.D. 147 1 year, Tupainga Yupanqui (also known as Topainga Yupanqui), the successor of PaCeacu, was believed to have expanded the empire by 4,000 kilometers (2,500 miles). The Incas themselves called their empire Tawantinsuyo (or Tahuantinsuyu), which means "quartered country" or "quartered country". Cuzco is considered as the center of the world, and the roads leading to every season and sacred scenic spot (Essex) radiate outward: Chintsasuyu (north), Antisuyu (east), Kolasuyu (south) and Contisuyu (west). 40,000 Incas were distributed in ancient Ecuador, Peru, northern Chile, Bolivia, the highlands of Argentina and southern Colombia, stretching 5,500 kilometers (3,400 miles) from north to south. They rule a vast territory, with about 65,438+0,000 million subjects speaking more than 30 different languages.
Government and administration
The Incas kept a list of their kings (sapa inca), so we know such as Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (reigned in 1438-63), Tupajan Inca Yupanqui (reigned in1471-93) and Wayne Qhapaq (reigned in1-93). It is possible that two kings ruled at the same time, and the queen may have some important powers, but the Spanish record is not clear on these two points. In sapa inca, he is an absolute ruler, and he lives a rich life. Drinking gold and silver cups, wearing silver shoes and living in a palace equipped with the best textiles, he was pampered to the extreme. He was even taken care of after his death, because the Incas mummified their rulers. The mummy (mallquis) stored in the temple of Kancha in Cuzco often wears their best kingship outside, gives food and beverage products, and "consults" their opinions according to state affairs during complicated ceremonies.
Inca rules, like their buildings, are based on independent and interlocking units. At the top are the rulers and ten nobles named Panaca. Then there are ten blood groups farther away from the king, and then there is a third aristocratic group who is not descended from Incas but regards Incas as privileges. At the bottom of the state apparatus are locally recruited administrators who are responsible for supervising the settlements and ayllu, the smallest population unit in the Andes. This is a collection of families, usually related families working on a piece of land, who lived together and supported each other in the past. Each ayllu is ruled by a few nobles or kurakas, and a role may include women.
Local CEOs report to more than 80 regional CEOs, and these CEOs report to the governor in charge of the empire every quarter. These four governors reported to the Inca supreme ruler in Cusco. In order to ensure loyalty, the heirs of local rulers were also held as prisoners in the Inca capital. At that time, the most important political, religious and military roles of the empire were in the hands of the Inca elite. Spaniards call them "orejones" or "big ears" because they wear big earmuffs to show their status. In order to better ensure the control of these elites over their subjects, the army was stationed all over the empire, and brand-new administrative centers were established, especially in Tambo, Colorado, Vanuk Pampa and Hatton Shosa.
For tax purposes, a census was conducted, and the population was grouped in multiples of ten (Inca mathematics is almost the same as the system we use today). Since there is no currency in the Inca world, taxes are paid in kind, usually food, precious metals, textiles, exotic feathers, dyes and vertebrate shells, but it also includes labor that can be transferred to where they need it most within the empire, called mit'a service. Farmland and herds are divided into three parts: production for national religions and gods, use by Inca rulers and use by farmers themselves. Local communities are also expected to help build and maintain imperial projects, such as the road system across the empire. In order to record all these statistics, the Incas used quipu, a complicated knot rope combination, which is also very convenient to transport and can record decimals as high as 10000.
Although the Incas imposed their religion and administration on the conquered people, squeezed tribute, and even moved the loyal population (mitmaqs) to better integrate the new territory into the empire, Inca culture also brought some benefits, such as food redistribution and better storage in the event of environmental disasters. Food facilities, work through state-funded projects, state-funded religious festivals, roads, irrigation systems, terraces, military assistance and luxuries, especially works of art enjoyed by local elites.
The most spectacular is the temple built in memory of Inti and his mother-the former is lined with 700 pieces of beating gold weighing 2 kilograms.
Cusco
Cuzco, the capital of the Inca (from qosqo, which means "dry lake bed", or possibly from the special stone symbol cozco in the city) is the religious and administrative center of the empire, with a population of 150000. Led by the sacred gold-plated and emerald-inlaid Coricancha complex (or Temple of the Sun), its greatest building is attributed to PaCeacu. The most brilliant is the temple built in memory of Inti and his mother-the former is lined with 700 pieces of 2 kg gold foil, and the latter is lined with silver. The whole capital is arranged in the form of a puma (although some scholars object to it and describe it vividly), with Pumachupan as the tail and Sacsayhuaman (or Saqsawaman) Temple as the head. Unfortunately, including the vast squares, parks, shrines, fountains and canals, the glory of Inca Cusco only remained in the witness records of the first Europeans who marveled at its architecture and wealth.
Inca religion
The Incas revered two early civilizations, Wali and Tiwanaku, which occupied almost the same territory. As we can see, the ruins of Lake Titicaca in Tiwanaku and Tiwanaku have played an important role in the creation myth of the Inca, so they are particularly respected. Inca rulers regularly make pilgrimages to Tiwanaku and the islands in the lake, where they built two temples dedicated to the sun god and the supreme Inca god, as well as the moon goddess Mama Kilia. Also in the Cusco Coricancha complex, these gods are represented by the high priest of the metal sun in a big and expensive way (:this is the second most important figure to participate in the worship of Willaq UMU, an artistic work led by priests and kings). Therefore, the Inca religion pays attention to controlling nature and avoiding disasters such as earthquakes, floods and droughts, which inevitably brings a cycle of natural changes, that is, the death and renewal of the time period called "PaCeacu Ti" by the Incas. .
Sacred sites have also been established, usually using outstanding natural features, such as hilltops, caves and springs. These huaka can be used for astronomical observation at some time of the year. Religious ceremonies are held according to the astronomical calendar, especially the movements (cocoons) of the sun, moon and galaxy. Parades and ceremonies may also be related to agriculture, especially during sowing and harvesting seasons. Together with Kaka's Sun Island, the most sacred Inca site is Pachakamak, a temple city built to commemorate the god of the same name who created human beings, plants and earthquakes. A huge wooden idol, regarded as an Oracle, brought pilgrims from the other end of the Andes to Pachacamak to worship. Shaman is another important part of Inca religion, which is active in every settlement. There are 475 people in Cuzco, the most important of whom is Yacar Ka, the personal advisor of the ruler.
Inca religious ceremonies also involve ancestor worship, which can be seen by making mummies and offering sacrifices to the gods of food, drinks and precious materials. Sacrifices-animals and humans, including children-are also used to appease and respect the gods and ensure the health of the king. Pouring wine, whether it is water or chica beer, is also an important part of Inca religious ceremonies.
The Incas imposed their religion on the local people by building their own temples and shrines. They haven't collected the sacred objects of the conquered people and kept them in Cuzco. Stored in Kolikancha, they may be regarded as hostages to ensure that they conform to the Inca worldview.
Inca architecture and roads
As master masons, the Incas used finely processed stones to build large buildings, city walls and fortifications-whether regular or polygonal-which were precisely assembled without mortar. These buildings pay attention to simple lines and trapezoidal shapes, and integrate natural features into these buildings to easily resist the frequent strong earthquakes in this area. The unique inclined trapezoidal form and exquisite masonry structure of Inca architecture not only have obvious aesthetic value, but also are regarded as recognizable signs of Inca ruling the whole empire.
One of the most common Inca buildings is the ubiquitous single-room warehouse qollqa. They are built on stones and have good ventilation. They are either round for storing corn or square for storing potatoes and tubers. Kallanka is a very large community assembly hall. Simpler buildings include Kancha, a group of small single rooms and rectangular buildings (wasi and masma), and thatched roofs are built around the courtyard surrounded by high walls. Kancha is a typical architectural feature of Inca towns, and this concept was spread to the conquered areas. Terraced fields that maximize the area of agricultural land (especially corn) are another way for Incas to export wherever they go. These terraces usually include canals, because the Incas are good at taking water, delivering water over long distances, leading water underground and creating spectacular outlets and fountains.
Camels and porters (no wheeled vehicles) were used to transport goods to the whole empire along specially built roads. The Inca highway network covers more than 40,000 kilometers, which not only facilitates the flow of troops, administrative personnel and trade goods, but also is a very powerful visual symbol for the Inca Empire to rule its empire. There are rest stops along the way, and there is a relay system for runners. Runners transmit information from one settlement to another in one day, with a total distance of 240 kilometers.
Inca art
Although influenced by the art and technology of Akagi civilization, the Incas did create their own unique style, which is an instant identification sign of the empire's dominance in the whole empire. Inca art is a leader in highly polished metal products (gold-considered as the sweat of the sun, silver-considered as the tears of the moon and copper), ceramics and textiles, and is finally considered the most famous by Incas. Designs usually use geometric shapes, which are technically complete and standardized. Chessboard is a very popular design. One of the reasons for repeated design is that pottery textiles are usually produced for the country as taxes, so works of art represent specific communities and their cultural heritage. Just as today's coins and stamps reflect the history of a country, Andean artworks also provide recognizable patterns, which either represent the specific community that made them or represent the designs imposed on them by the ruling Inca class.
Works made of precious metals, such as discs, jewels, figures and daily necessities, were specially made for Inca nobles, and even some textiles were restricted from being used alone. Commodities made of super soft camel hair are also restricted, and only Inca rulers can own camels. Ceramics are more widely used. The most common shape is urpu, a spherical container with a long neck and two small handles, which is located on a jar for storing corn. It is worth noting that Inca pottery decorations, textiles and architectural sculptures usually do not include themselves, their rituals or common Andean images such as monsters and half-human, half-animal images.
The textiles, ceramics and metal sculptures produced by the Incas are superior to any previous Andean culture in technology, although they compete fiercely with metal processing masters such as professional craftsmen of Moche civilization. Just as the Incas ruled their conquered subjects politically, they also practiced standard Inca forms and designs in art, but they did allow local traditions to retain their favorite colors and proportions. Genius artists and women from chan chan or Titicaca who were particularly good at weaving were brought to Cuzco to make beautiful things for Inca rulers.
collapse
The Inca Empire was established and maintained by force, and the ruling Incas were often unpopular with their subjects (especially in the northern region). In this case, the Spanish conquistadors headed by Francisco Pizarro will make full use of the advantages of/kloc-0 in the middle of the 6th century. In fact, the Inca Empire had not reached the stage of consolidation and maturity when facing the greatest challenge. Rebellion prevailed and the Incas were involved in the war. In Ecuador, the second Inca capital was established in Quito. More seriously, the Incas were attacked by European diseases (such as smallpox), which spread from Central America even faster than the European invaders themselves, killing an astonishing 65-90% of the population. The disease killed Wayna Qhapaq in A.D. 1528, and his two sons Waskar and Atahualpa fought for control of the empire in a destructive civil war when European treasure hunters arrived. It was the combination of these factors-a perfect storm composed of rebellion, disease and invasion-that led to the collapse of the powerful Inca Empire, which was the largest and richest empire in American history.
The printed Quechua language is still used today, and about 8 million people still use it. There are also a large number of buildings, handicrafts and written records, which survived the destruction of conquerors, marauders and time. Compared with the great wealth lost, the number of these remains is relatively small, but they are still indisputable testimony to the wealth, originality and high cultural achievements of this great but short-lived civilization.
Do you like this definition?