There are abundant records about the funerals of emperors in past dynasties. From the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, the funerals of emperors and members of the royal family became more and more complicated and ostentatious. Limited by space, only two funerals of emperors in the late feudal society-Ming and Qing dynasties-are selected to make a typical explanation and induction to represent the funerals of emperors in the whole feudal period. & lt/P & gt； & ltP> Ming Taizu's funeral, also known as the grand funeral. The whole mourning process can be divided into three parts: testamentary edict, ministerial meeting and document annotation.
The funeral of the Qing emperor basically followed the system of the Ming dynasty, but it also integrated some customs and habits of Manchu and the system of ancient etiquette.
On the day of the emperor's death, all the books and preparations were laid out.
After the great funeral, the son tribute of the great emperor was placed among the nobles of the imperial palace, such as Guan Wang, Baylor, Bei Zi, Gong, Fei and Fujin. I have to go home to fast, and ministers and officials from various government departments and offices all go to the dormitory of this yamen to stay and fast, and are not allowed to go home. As for idle officials, they gathered at the noon gate to fast and stay. After the expiration of fasting, civil and military officials below the king are not allowed to enjoy themselves, and funeral activities are prohibited. Beijing military and civilians should pick their heads and ears within 27 days, not allowed to get married within one month, and not allowed to have fun within 100 days (that is, any form of cultural and recreational activities; Mainly refers to cultural performances), 49 days are not allowed to slaughter, 27 days are not allowed to pray and sacrifice. Before the service, the document ticket should be printed in blue ink. Since the day of the great funeral in Beijing, temples and temples have rung bells 30,000 times. The next day, a ceremony will be held in front of Tiananmen Square to release the will.
funeral
In ancient times, funeral was extremely simple, and there was no tomb system. With the passage of time, the burial places of some ancestors have disappeared in people's minds. After entering the feudal society, in order to commemorate many heroes who have contributed to the development of Chinese civilization, people built many memorial tombs and temples according to legends, such as Da Wuling in Tuitian, Henan, Huangdi Mausoleum in Huangling, Shaanxi, Yandi Mausoleum in Hunan, Shao Hao Mausoleum in Qufu, Shandong, Zhuan Xu Mausoleum in Levin, Hebei, Yaoling in Linfen, Shanxi, Shunling in Ningyuan, Hunan and Shaoxing in Shaoxing, Zhejiang. However, at that time, due to the feudal lords' separatist regime, manpower and material resources were scattered, and the scale of tombs was relatively small, and there was no cemetery building. After Qin Shihuang unified the six countries, he built the mausoleum of Qin Shihuang in Lintong, Shaanxi Province, formerly known as "Mount Li" or "Mount Li", which lasted for forty years. This practice of spending a lot of manpower and financial resources to build a grand mausoleum for the emperor to reflect the majesty of feudal imperial power was followed by the feudal dynasty. Only after the death of the Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, he was buried deeply, and then even if he went to Ma Benteng, all traces on the ground were destroyed, making the exact burial place a permanent secret. This is in line with Mongolian customs and is an exception. In addition, many emperors in the Tang Dynasty were buried in the mountains as tombs, and no large tombs were built. Tall mounds were originally a symbol of mountains. In today's China, there are still many tombs of emperors' empresses that can be seen or preserved. The famous ones are the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, the Mausoleum of Emperor Gaozu, the Mausoleum of Emperor Wudi of Han Dynasty, the Mausoleum of Emperor Huidi of Liu Bei, the Empress Dowager of Northern Wei Dynasty, the Mausoleum of Wenjing Emperor, Liang Wudi and Emperor Xiandi of Chen, the Zhaoling of Emperor Taizong, the Zhaoling of Emperor Taizong, the Ganling of Emperor Taizong and Wu Zetian, the Tailing of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty, the Mausoleum and the Qianling of Yang Guifei. Ming Emperor's Mausoleum, Ming Taizu Xiaoling Mausoleum, Ming Chengzu Changling Mausoleum, Ming Shenzong Dingling Ming Sizong Four Mausoleums, Qing Early Mausoleum, Qing Dongling Mausoleum, Qing Xiling Mausoleum, Qianlong Rongfei Mausoleum, Guangxu Zhenfei Mausoleum, etc.
Audience ceremony
1. During the Han Dynasty, when princes with the same surname came to the DPRK, the emperors often treated each other with family courtesy, and even when feasting and talking, they didn't pay much attention to the ceremony of the monarch and the minister. Later, during the reign of Emperor Taishigong of the Emperor Wu of Jin Dynasty, it was stipulated that every three-year-old vassal should hold a ceremony in the court.
2. One hundred officials appeared in court.
First, the courtiers saw the ceremony of the monarch and bowed five times. It means kowtowing first, then kowtowing four times. When officials see the Prince or the Prince of the East Palace, they kowtow and worship.
Second, all officials in Beijing will come to the palace to say goodbye if they are on vacation or on official business.
Third, when important state officials, especially those officials, come to Beijing to meet the emperor, crack hon temple should give priority to bringing them to the emperor immediately.
Fourth, civil servants above Grade 4, bachelor of imperial academy, Shang Baosi, prefect of the Sixth Division, military attache, Hou Bo, attached horse officer, guest and security guard, who have been ill for more than three days, must meet laymen at the noon gate in public service. If a minister is sent to the hospital by the emperor and gives material condolences, and if a minister is given a gift after the exam, he should thank the emperor in person.
Fifth, the rank of each photo shows disrespect when the officials of civil and military officials enter and leave the palace gate. When officials below the first level meet officials, Hou, Xu and others, they must salute and then follow; When meeting with the first-level officials, the third-and fourth-level officials should be courteous and walk and stand behind the first-level officials. Officials below level five are analogized. No trespassing or rudeness unless there is a summons.
Sixth, when a hundred officials enter the DPRK, they must be respectful. They are not allowed to greet and salute people in private, and they are not allowed to make noise, spit and all acts of disrespect. After entering the DPRK and the emperor ascended the throne, no one is allowed to make noise, laugh, point and look around.
Seventh, when a hundred officials enter the DPRK to salute and go out to handle affairs, they should follow the principle that the civil servants are in the east and the military attache is in the west, and they should not go straight to the Imperial Road. If you worship at Fengtianmen or Wumen, those who have justified reasons to walk sideways from east to west must also retreat to the south of Jinshui Bridge to pass.
Eighth, ministers are not allowed to face south when they enter the DPRK, whether standing or sitting. Offenders are accused of breaking the law.
Nine, courtiers and officials, no one will take the middle road and the fifth road in the palace.
Tenth, no one except the emperor is allowed to walk and trample on the three steps at the main entrance of the main hall.
Eleventh, when officials attend the Senate, they must concentrate on the imperial edict class and listen carefully.
Twelfth, when you meet the emperor, you will sometimes be given your seat.
Thirteenth, the official who has been given up must stand up when another official speaks to the emperor, and can't sit down until after the performance. They are not allowed to sit down and lose their manners.
There are also various etiquette for the prince to meet the emperor, the emperor to meet the emperor's father and queen mother, the queen and concubines to meet the emperor, court attendants and maids to meet their masters.
wedding
"Five Rites" once said that since the later Qi Dynasty, regardless of the emperor and the common people, weddings are "one for receiving gifts, the other for honoring names, the third for receiving gifts, the fourth for receiving gifts, the fifth for inviting guests and the sixth for welcoming guests."
This is the six stages of ancient wedding, commonly known as the "Six Rites". Divided as follows:
First, Na Cai: This is the first stage of marriage proposal. After the man asked the media to propose, the woman agreed to propose. The man prepared a gift and proposed to the woman's house. The gift is a wild goose, and all wild geese must be alive. Why use geese? Wild goose is a migratory bird, symbolizing the meaning of yin and yang. Later, it came up with a new idea, saying that the geese lost their spouses and would never pair up for life to gain their loyalty. & lt/P & gt； & ltP> Second, ask the name: After proposing marriage, let the matchmaker ask the woman's date of birth and name to prepare for the wedding ceremony. ?
Najib: It is a ritual to inform the woman of the good news of marriage after asking the name. Also known as "subscription". This is the main ceremony at the engagement stage. In ancient customs, geese are used as a token of marriage as usual. Later, it was developed to use rings, jewelry, colored silk, gift cakes, gift candles, and even sheep and pigs, so it was also called sending or hiring.
Iv. Briding: After the engagement, the man's family will send a bride price to the woman's family, which is a gift at the wedding stage. This kind of wedding is also commonly known as the end of employment or big employment, big gifts and so on. Later, this ceremony also adopted the practice of returning gifts, returning part or all of the food in the dowry; Or after being hired, the wife will give the man a coat, hat, shoes and socks as a gift. The number of betrothal gifts and the names of items are auspicious and wishful, and the number is double taboo table.
5. Invitation date: After the bride price is delivered, choose the wedding date, prepare the gift to the woman's home, and get the consent of the ceremony. Goose is used as usual in ancient customs, and gifts are generally simple. Bridal gifts are often combined with bride price, and the wedding date and gift money are decided at the same time.
6. Kissing: This is a ceremony for the newly married husband to meet his wife. This ceremony is often regarded as the main procedure of the wedding, while the first five items are regarded as transitional etiquette such as marriage negotiation and engagement. Some of these forms are out of the need of social relations, such as going to the woman's house to "make up makeup", going to the man's house to "make a face" and "make a wedding", all of which are rituals to establish social relations. This ceremony is purely a part of the wedding. Generally, sedan chairs are used, which are divided into double roofs or single roofs. The "seeing the bride off" to help the bride get on the sedan chair and the "seeing the bride off" to accompany the groom to the woman's house have their own requirements, such as getting off the sedan chair, returning to the horse, welcoming the car, getting off the sedan chair, paying homage to heaven and earth, entering the bridal chamber, etc ... There are several to a dozen forms in each process, and most of them express their wishes. The wedding season is generally in spring, and the country is founded by agriculture, which coincides with the slack season and bumper harvest, just in time for marriage. & lt/P & gt； & ltP> After the "Six Rites" of marriage, the bride entered the transition period and returned to her family's "mothering" until the bride entered the reproductive period, and the second generation held a fertility ceremony. From then on, the wedding is just a family celebration anniversary, which is celebrated according to the anniversary (a grand celebration ceremony with "flowers", called bigamy wine) and celebrated every year until the whole year. In foreign countries, married for 25 years, silver marriage. Married for 50 years, golden wedding. These are all commemorative ceremonies of the wedding.
Issue imperial edicts and list documents
1) send a letter. Issue imperial edicts, including ceremonies when the emperor or empress dowager issued decrees and copies. There are many kinds of imperial edicts, including succession imperial edict, accession imperial edict, Yuan Dynasty reform imperial edict, promotion imperial edict, leaving cabinet imperial edict, granting imperial edict, etiquette imperial edict, governor imperial edict, southern suburb imperial edict, closing mountain imperial edict, visiting temple imperial edict, attached temple imperial edict, attached burial imperial edict, gift imperial edict and recovery imperial edict. All kinds of imperial edicts have their own specific contents. For example, the imperial edict of succession is the imperial edict, which refers to the imperial edict issued when the emperor passed the throne to the new king before his death; The imperial edict is a document issued to the people all over the world when the emperor ascended the throne, also known as the "imperial edict". The contents of the imperial edicts are different, so I don't intend to state them one by one here, but simply introduce some ceremonies for issuing the imperial edicts. & lt/P & gt； & ltP> In the 26th year of Ming Hongwu (1393), the imperial edict was first formulated. There is a throne in Fengtian Hall and a treasure chest in the east of the Hall. There is a band in the hall, ready to play neutral music, and the music is outside the meridian gate and Chengtianmen. There is a reading case on Chengtianmen, facing southwest. In the early morning, a captain stood in front of the curtain in the cloud-covered hall, 100 officials dressed in royal robes stood outside Chengtianmen, and a public official and a Hou stood outside the noon gate, all facing each other. The emperor wore a fur coat and boarded the temple. Its instrument is like a court instrument. The official of the Ministry of Rites came to the case with an imperial edict, stamped with the national prestige, and placed the imperial edict in Yungeli. A captain with a cloud cover; Go out from the east gate of the temple. Outside the city gate, a captain with an imperial edict walked from Fengtianmen to the south meridian gate of Jinshui Bridge, led by Qi Huangong, and greeted Chengtianmen. Ritual officials sang hymns, took turns to sing harmony, civil and military officials took their positions, music resumed, and everyone stopped. Reading officials and exhibition officials are promoted to case officials, which is called "one system", and all the officials kneel at the sound of it. The official does not hold the imperial edict and gives it to the reader. After reading it, he gave it to the official and put it in the clouds. The master of ceremonies praised, "Get down." Officials bowed; Call "stand up!" Fang stood up, stood up again, bowed four times and stopped. The civil and military officials danced and danced, shouting and worshiping. The etiquette department announced: "The ceremony is over! The emperor got up and went out of the temple, and the officials of the Ministry of Rites held the imperial edict and gave it to the messenger, but the officials excused themselves. & lt/P & gt； & ltP> Six years of Liang Mingjing (1527), the imperial edict was revised. Lu Hong officially set up a treasure chest. Royal Guards set up a cloud cover plate on the east side of Fengtian Hall, another cloud cover plate on Chengtian Gate and a colorful bridge outside the noon gate. There is also a reading case on Chengtianmen. Hundreds of officials stood in front of the throne, the emperor was crowned and seated, and officials in imperial academy stood in front of the throne with letters. Guan Bai entered the class, made four obeisances, and went out to Chengtianmen. At the official start of the ceremony, imperial academy officials awarded the imperial edict to officials of the Ministry of Rites. The official of the Ministry of Rites held an imperial edict on the cloud disk case, and the cloud cover was held by a captain. A group of people went out from the east gate of the temple and put the imperial edict in a colorful sedan chair outside the noon gate. For officials above the rank of official, Hou and Bo are the leaders. It is the same as the ceremony of greeting the heavenly gate and chanting and worshipping during the Hongwu period. After reading it, the officials of the Ministry of Rites presented the imperial edict to the Royal Guards, put it in the cloud box, tied the cloud box to the dragon pole with colored ropes, and went down to Chengtianmen. Don't write down the official document, put it in Long Ting, beat drums and escort it to the official document, and give it to the messenger for promulgation.
The above is the ceremony of issuing imperial edicts. What was the ceremony for welcoming imperial edicts? During the reign of Hongwu, there were also etiquette rules for this link. Every department that sends envoys to read and receive the imperial edicts should prepare the Dragon Pavilion, perform ceremonial ceremonies and drum music, and go out of the wall to meet them. The messenger who sent the imperial edict dismounted, placed the imperial edict in the Long Ting, and stood to the south. The officials of the imperial edict department wore royal robes and made five obeisances. Then, officials and bands are installed for leaders and messengers.
Then Long Ting came to Gongyi yamen together. The officers advanced to the main entrance and lined up in the hall according to the principle of "Wen Wudong Xi", waiting for Long Ting to enter the door. The massage parlor arrived and made four obeisances. After the messenger entered the room, he handed Long Ting's letter to Zhandu Palace. Zhandu Palace knelt them on the ground and went to the front of the case to read the letter. After reading it, paste the imperial edict.
He is also an ambassador and an old friend of Long Ting. The officials made four obeisances, danced and shouted slogans, then made four obeisances and ended the ceremony. The company chief went to the front of Long Ting, knelt down and asked the emperor to bow. The imperial envoy bowed and replied, "Blessed is the holy bow." All the officials have retired.
When they parted, they put on their royal robes and official uniforms to meet and entertain the messengers. When they met, the two sides respected each other and worshipped each other.
All imperial envoys, whether officials, soldiers or ordinary people, should bow down at the roadside immediately after seeing them and wait until the imperial motorcade arrives before they can get up.
The above is a summary of the ceremony of issuing and receiving imperial edicts. In addition to imperial edicts, there are other forms of orders issued by the emperor, such as saving symbols, Dan symbols, imperial edicts and so on. Most of these documents are not publicly communicated, so there is no grand ceremony.
In the Qing Dynasty, imperial edicts were first written in Manchu, Mongolian and Chinese, and then changed to Manchu and Chinese. There are Huang Gai, Yunpan, imperial edict and Huang case in the Hall of Supreme Harmony. Prepare a dragon court and a fragrant court outside the noon gate; In Tiananmen Square, a golden wind was prefabricated at the entrance of the building, and a publicity platform was built in the east. The bachelor of cabinet took a letter, sealed the national seal and put it on the yellow case. When the emperor entered the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the princes and ministers saluted, and the university students held the imperial edict and handed it to the ministers of rites under the trough of the hall. Ministers knelt down and displayed them on a single imperial edict. After the ceremony, the imperial edict was put into the cloud plate and covered with a yellow cover. The Ritual Palace took the cloud plate out of the Taihe Gate from the middle road, and the officials went from the line to the Wumen Gate and put the cloud plate into the Longting. Long Ting came to the south of the bridge outside Tiananmen Square, took out the cloud disk and put it on the yellow box on the high platform. The civil and military officials stood in a line to the north and read the palace. Officials knelt down to listen to Zhao Xuan's speech, first in Manchu and then in Chinese. After reading it, all the officials knelt down and kowtowed nine times. In the imperial edict, officials put the imperial edict on a cloud, tied it with colored ropes, and hung it from the golden tuyere upstairs in Tiananmen Square. The official didn't take the imperial edict that there was a cloud under the tower and put it in Long Ting. Gong Wei long ting went out to clear the door and didn't do it. Shangshu of the Ministry of Rites led his subordinate Wang Que (imperial court) to worship the incense table and welcome the imperial edict ceremony. If it does not conform to the imperial edict, it will be printed with yellow manuscripts and distributed to all provinces.
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2) instrument. The so-called upper table here includes not only tables, but also notes, memorials, letters, seals, titles, books, dispatches and other words. The writing styles and genres of various genres belong to the discussion scope of article study or Stylistics. Here, only the etiquette of some princes, ministers and officials when addressing the emperor or empress dowager is described. As for the different stylistic formats played, they are only accompanied by explanations when it comes to etiquette content. In view of the characteristics of etiquette in Ming Dynasty, its legal system is of great typical significance to the feudal dynasty of Han nationality. Let's take the ceremony of the Ming Dynasty as an example to sum it up.
In the Song Dynasty, the ministers went to the table, and the general situation was as follows: the court guards were located next to the court, the civil servants were in the east, and the military attache was in the west, which was relatively ahead; Set the secretariat to the north of the ministers. The official of the Ministry of Rites raised the table and entered the case, and the book was ordered to leave the column and stand in the south. Did the card shark give the table to the secretariat, and the secretariat hit the emperor on the table? Whenever there is a big courtier, the prime minister will lead the civil and military officials, generals of various countries, Taoist priests and monks, folk old people and so on. Go to the east gate to pay homage to the watch. The watch-reading officer kneels to the prime minister, who kneels to the cabinet door, the cabinet door to the golden boy, and the golden boy to the emperor. In the Song Dynasty, when a minister came to the table, there must be an important minister as the "table head", that is, the table head. Some people think that the third division of Prince Taizi should be the director, while others think that the director should be a servant shooter. Finally, it is decided to take servant shooter as the director, because he is the teacher of hundreds of officials.
In the Ming Dynasty, there were many forms such as entering the table, entering Yushu, entering the book, congratulating the table and thanking the table. , very detailed and specific. First, talk about the meter.
Customized in the early Ming Dynasty, Wang Fu met three major festivals: Zheng Dan, Winter Solstice and Christmas, and the furnishings were all prepared in advance. After the preparations are completed, the vassal king will be crowned in place, worship four times, kneel in front of the incense table, sit down, reset, worship four times, dance three times, shout three times and worship four times again. Its officials also wore royal robes and saluted the class. If you enter the queen's table, the ceremony of calling the mountain is the same except not dancing; If you enter the crown prince's seat, the king wears leather clothes and pedestrians worship.
In every yamen, hundreds of officials put notes on the table, but only the rules, no ceremony, decided between Hongwu and Hongwu. On the day before the banquet, the streets near the yamen and Gongyi were newly decorated, and officials rested in this yamen. On the morning of the sitting, there is a dragon court in the court, etiquette ceremony and drum music on the terrace, a table of notes in front of the dragon court, a table of incense tables in front of the case, and the dragon court east as the annotator. At the beginning of the drum, the officials put on their royal clothes, and then they were neat. Before the chief arrived at the incense table, he stamped the official seal on the table, put it on the table, and then stepped down. The drums are three strict, and the officers enter the class, and they worship four times. Before the head reaches the table incense table, the praise officer is called "kneel". The officers kneel, one deacon kneels to the head, and the other kneels to the table officer, who kneels to take it and puts it in the Long Ting. With their heads back, the officers bowed four times, danced three times, shouted three times and bowed four times. The gongs and drums lead in front, the guard of honor follows, the drum music follows, the officials follow, and the seated officials and Long Ting follow. When I came to the outskirts, the massage parlour faced south, the ceremonial drum music was arranged as above, and the civil and military officials stood still. The chief took out the watch from the massage parlour and gave it to the watch-entering officer, who immediately took it, rode away to the imperial palace, and all the officers returned.
The Ming Dynasty stipulated the number, procedures and dates of entry and exit. For example, in the twenty-sixth year of Hongwu (1393), the emperor's birthday was decided, and only five or more yamen outside the capital were listed; Zheng Dan, Winter to Japan, Shangdi Biaowen, Zhongwen Jianjian and Dongwen Jianjian each have one person. The local provincial government, whose watch is given to whom.
Send it to the ceremony department. Stationery in each state is handed over to the government first, then to the Chief Secretary, and finally to the Ritual Department, which makes a classified catalogue of stationery imported from all over the country, reports it to the emperors, queens and princes of the palace, and gives away all stationery.
The speaker said that when the church was going smoothly, internal disputes broke out suddenly, and the church was greatly affected by differences in etiquette. This was not the misfortune of the church. In fact, the origin of this problem began when Jesuits first entered China. Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit, tried to cater to China's inherent customs and habits in order to preach Taoism, so he first wore a monk's costume, thinking that he would not be discriminated against by China people. Later, he realized that monks were not valued by society, so he changed into a Confucian suit. In Matteo Ricci's view, all habits that do not interfere with the fundamental beliefs of Christianity can be accommodated. Therefore, he is not very stubborn on the issue of the title of God and the respect for Confucius and ancestor worship. Because when Christianity first entered China, it was difficult to decide the terms used in religion. The name of God was originally transliterated into Dehousse because a new proper noun could not be found. In the past, Islam, Judaism, Nestorianism, etc. Everyone has difficulties with this. So Matteo Ricci used the word "God" at first. Later, he saw from China's ancient books that the name of heaven or god was used by China ancient sages to refer to the Lord of heaven and earth, so he changed his original intention and replaced god with heaven or god. Later, I read Zhu's explanation of heaven, saying that heaven is just a kind of meaning: that is to say, God is not necessarily the only master of heaven and earth. He also used God or God. This led to the subsequent debate, that is, a group of people advocated that only God should be used, not heaven and God. Jesuits thought that the three might as well be used together, because the ancients in China regarded them as the masters of heaven and earth. People discussed the problem with great interest. Later, the same discussion will occur in the translation of the Bible by Protestant Christianity. Some people advocate replacing God with the word of God. Today, the cover of some bibles is still marked with the words "God" or "God", which means that God is translated as "God" or "God" in this book, but it is not as serious as Catholicism at that time. The second question is: Is it a sin to worship ancestors and respect Confucius? Are Christians absolutely not allowed to participate? Does this etiquette have any religious significance? Or even if missionaries think they are guilty, Christians can still judge with their conscience? Because this is a popular habit in China for thousands of years, if we want to completely reject it, we will inevitably encounter great resistance in missionary work, and most people will regard Christianity as the destruction of China's familism and national concept. Matteo Ricci once took a compromise approach to this issue, thinking that Christians thought it was just a courtesy, showing admiration and filial piety, so it was better to let him obey it. This was originally a last resort. But at that time, some Jesuits opposed it, such as Longhua Min, who once banned ancestor worship and Confucius worship, thinking that it was no different from idol worship in Buddhism and Taoism and contrary to Catholic teachings.
Thirdly, about some fragmentary questions, such as: Should Christians lose money and participate in activities such as meeting people with God? Or a Christian whose ancestors are not Christians, is Christian ceremony applicable? Or can a priest baptize a woman, which is considered inappropriate in China customs? These minor problems are related to the above problems, and they are subsidiary, not major. Therefore, it is the first two points that have become the central issue of this debate. Since the external oppression of the church decreased in the 17th century, there have been internal disputes. In this way, from the different opinions of the two factions to the jealousy between factions, it is more influential in the international arena. Not only the missionaries in the Far East participated in the two fronts, but also the European churches had a heated debate.
Most of the Jesuits in China supported Matteo Ricci's ideas, while Dominicans and Franciscans opposed them. 163 1 year, a Dominican missionary went to Fujian to preach. When he saw that Jesuits were allowed to worship their ancestors and respect Confucius, he was greatly dissatisfied. Even the Franciscans reported this problem to the Archbishop of Manila, the first city in the Philippines, and the Archbishop gave this report to Pope Chilpen VIII, which was in 1635. On the one hand, the Pope sent staff to investigate, on the other hand, the Jesuits pleaded with the Pope. By 1638, the archbishop withdrew his complaint.
A Dominican named Morales came to China in 1633 and was forced to leave China in 1637. He opposed the Jesuits from the beginning. After I arrived in Europe, 1643, I told the Missionary Association about this situation and put forward 17 questions to attack the Jesuits. There are several important ones, such as:
Can missionaries cancel the anointing ceremony when they baptize women?
Can China people pay 30% interest, and people who live by borrowing money become Christians? Can I continue my Christian career?
Can Christians donate money to superstitious things, such as the meeting for God? When the country holds a sacrifice, can Christians attend this ceremony? Can Christians attend the ceremony of offering sacrifices to Confucius or other funerals? Can Christians call Confucius God? Can you put an inscription or plaque like "Long live" in the chapel?
As a result of discussion by the Missionary Association and with the consent of the Seventh Knight of Pope enoch, a ban was issued on1September, 965 12. The order stipulates that the ban must be observed temporarily until another resolution is made. Naturally, the Jesuits in China were very surprised by this resolution and decided to present their views to the authorities. Therefore, in 165 1 year, a representative named Father Martino Martini was sent to Rome to explain. They think that Malays have never had a correct understanding of their system. Wei's family arrived in Rome on 1654 and sent the Jesuits' statement to the "pagan inquisition". After considerable consideration, Pope Alexander ruled in VII that Jesuits were allowed to do what they thought, and Christians were allowed to decide for themselves what was within this scope, regardless of superstitious rituals and funerals, as long as they did not interfere with their fundamental beliefs. This command was issued in 1656. On the surface, this seems to conflict with the command issued by 1645. In fact, it is only temporary, and there is no absolute certainty. The Dominican parliament was dissatisfied with the first order, and Malays once questioned it. At this time, Ma Shi had passed away. Paalanko followed Ma Shi and asked the Holy See: Do you want to cancel the law of 1645? 1669, Pope Grameen replied to him with a document saying that these two laws should be observed according to the situation, which seems to have won the Jesuits a little.
When the second religious disaster occurred, priests from all provinces were imprisoned in Guangzhou, including Jesuits, Dominicans and Franciscans. The largest number of Jesuits is a good opportunity for cooperation. They spent 40 days fully discussing all aspects of the church, and * * * unanimously solved 42 problems, one of which was "abiding by the law of 1656". After the resolution is made, sign it with the priests and abide by it together. However, a famous Dominican navarrete could not agree and fled to Macau and returned to Europe by boat. He published some works in Europe and made a great attack on the Jesuits, so the Jesuits at that time attacked him not only in Catholicism, but also in Protestantism in Europe. In China, however, the situation is different. All the Austrian Franciscans agreed with the Jesuits, that is, the Dominicans stood in opposition, and some even defended Matteo Ricci's situation at that time. Only the Bishop of Fujian, Maigrot, was greatly dissatisfied with the Jesuit system, and some French Jesuits expressed sympathy for Mann. Bishop of the Manchu Dynasty once issued an order forbidding the application of the Jesuit system, calling gods heaven or gods, and hanging a plaque with the words "blue sky" in the chapel. He thought that the decree of Pope 1656 had no responsibility to abide by, and accused Martino Martini of being groundless, so his parishioners were absolutely not allowed to worship Confucius and their ancestors freely. Because if these fallacies and heresies are not removed from the chapel, believers will not be able to worship God wholeheartedly, and missionaries will not be able to combine the teachings of Christ with the lessons in China's ancient books. We should pay attention to the fact that the God mentioned by Christianity is the master who created the universe. In order to carry out this order, he decisively expelled two Jesuits, which aroused the response of Jesuits and caused great conflicts. So, he sent two priests, namely Gemena and Cha Mote, to Europe to request a review of Pope Enoch's 12th knighthood. 1697, the Pope submitted the original case to the pagan inquisition for study. This issue has become a debate of great interest to religious circles, and many books about this debate were once published. A Protestant philosopher named Leibniz also wrote a defense book for the Jesuits. It was not until 17000 that the professor of the Department of Theology of the University of Paris issued a declaration, disapproved of the Jesuits' ideas and criticized the Jesuits' books, and the eyes of ordinary people were diverted.
Because this problem has caused a lot of troubles in Europe, the Holy See organized a committee to study this problem. No Jesuits participated in this committee in order to have a fair solution. At this time, Jesuits in China had to ask Emperor Kangxi whether ancestor worship and Confucius worship contained religious nature. Emperor Kangxi officially announced on 1700 1 1 30/that China's ancestor worship and hole worship were just a kind of reverence etiquette to commemorate his past good deeds, and had no religious nature. However, people who opposed the Jesuits even got an excuse that it was really inappropriate to let the pagan emperor make a decision instead of asking the Vatican to solve the problem about the church. This is enough to arouse the Pope's ill feelings towards Jesuits. In 1704, the "pagan inquisition" was printed as an official document, approved by Pope Clement Xi and published on 1 1 20th. Its provisions include: it is forbidden to call God "Heaven or God".
It is forbidden to hang a plaque with the words "blue sky" in the chapel. Christians are forbidden to worship Confucius and their ancestors.
It is strictly forbidden to have words such as soul on the memorial tablet. The Holy See decided to send a special representative to mediate the dispute in the east, because it wanted to implement this official document and was afraid of any adverse influence. Because the same incident happened in Malabo at that time, the representative had to be sensitive and hard-working, not only to satisfy the priests and local believers, but also to hope that China could understand the Pope's decree. It was difficult to find a candidate with such an important mission, and finally Bishop Charles Maillard de Tournon decided to come to China with this decree. First of all, I went to India, where I intend to settle the dispute in Malaba. As a result, I objected to the Bishop of Botswana and the Jesuits, and it didn't work. /kloc-0 in Guangzhou on April, 705,/kloc-0 in Beijing on February 4th. Jesuits are skeptical about his appointment, because these missionaries have worked in China all their lives and built many houses. Now they are ruled by a young man who doesn't know the situation in China. Of course, they cannot show great obedience. Emperor Kangxi was very polite at first. Later, the young man's representative stood against the emperor's idea. He could not yield to the imperial edict issued before Kangxi, which made Kangxi greatly unhappy. He ordered him to leave the capital as soon as possible. Doro had to leave Beijing and arrive in Nanjing. So Emperor Kangxi issued an imperial edict in 17061February, stipulating that all missionaries were not allowed to preach in China unless they obtained the printed tickets approved by the imperial court and were allowed to observe the etiquette of China.
When Bishop Dorothy heard this order, he thought of his mission and announced the Pope's order in Nanjing. With his own explanation, he condemned those who used the names of God and heaven and those tablets to represent clouds. And said that anyone who violates this ban must be excommunicated; This is obviously against Emperor Kangxi. Therefore, some French priests were deported for disobeying the orders of Emperor Kangxi. Only most Austin and Jesuits accepted the emperor's words, but they hope to ask the Pope to revise Dorothy's declaration in the future. Because of Doro's resistance, Emperor Kangxi sent him to Macao for custody, and at the same time, at the suggestion of Jesuits, he sent two priests to Rome, hoping to change Doro's declaration in Nanjing and the decree of 1704. Doro was imprisoned in Macao, and the Bishop of Macao rebelled, but Doro still exercised him.