A.
Buddhism, which was introduced into the Han area of China, has been translated, lectured and melted for a long time, and combined with the traditional culture of China, forming various schools and sects with national characteristics; And spread to North Korea, Japan and Vietnam.
When historical Buddhism was introduced into the Han Dynasty in China, there is no conclusion in academic circles. It is recorded in China's ancient historical books that during the Qin Shihuang period, 18 people, including Samoan family and Li Fang, went to China. According to "The Good Solution of Viposha", during the Ashoka era, after the third gathering of Buddhism, Dademahale was abandoned from the dharma circle. Send Armageddon to the border countries of snow-capped mountains. When King Ashoka Bodhidharma was named by Doronata in Tibet in the history of Indian Buddhism, monks were good at preaching in zhina. The history book of Nanxuan Buddhism says that he sent Zhina for the last time. These missionary activities have been handed down from generation to generation because there are no translated relics, which cannot be confirmed.
During Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions from the second year of Han Jianyuan to the third year of Yuan Shuo (BC 139 ~ 126), he saw Shu Bu and Qiong Bamboo Slips trafficked from Hu in summer, which indicated that there was already folk communication between China and India at that time, and Buddhism was probably introduced to Han. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty also opened a sea passage and established contact with Huang Zhi and other places on the east coast of India. In recent years, archaeological discoveries show that there are Buddha statues in Pengshan tombs in Sichuan in the Eastern Han Dynasty, and the Buddhist cliff statues in Kongwangshan, Lianyungang, Jiangsu Province were initially confirmed to belong to the Eastern Han Dynasty. In the eighth year of Yongping (65), Emperor Hanming of the East gave Chu an imperial edict, "Worship Futuren Temple, and swear with God in March", which shows that Buddhism was introduced at that time. It is said that the introduction of classics began in the first year of Yuanshou in Han Dynasty (2 BC), when Wang Yue's special envoy Yicun dictated Buddhist scriptures to his doctoral disciple Lu Jing, but the reason for the Buddhist scriptures has been lost. During Yongping period (58-75 AD), sending envoys to the western regions to retrieve the Forty-two Chapters Classic was always the beginning of the introduction of Buddhism into China. Whether this statement is a historical fact is quite controversial in modern times. Because of the war in the western regions at that time, traffic was cut off, and it was not opened until the sixteenth year of Yongping. Therefore, it can only be inferred that Buddhism began to be introduced into Han areas around the Gregorian calendar era. The spread area centers on Chang 'an and Luoyang, and spreads to Pengcheng (Xuzhou) and other places. At that time, some people thought that Buddhism was a magical power of immortality, so Emperor Huan worshipped the Yellow Emperor, Lao Zi and Buddha together, "reciting Huang Lao's quips and worshiping the Buddha's tower as a benevolent temple" and regarded the shaman as an alchemist.
After inheriting the Han Dynasty in the Three Kingdoms period, the Buddhist monks Tangaro, Tandi and Senkai Kang of Tianzhu, who were prepared for danger in times of peace, successively came to Luoyang, the capital of Wei, to translate scriptures. Zhi Qian Qian, Sang Hui and others went to Wudu Jianye (now Nanjing, Jiangsu) to preach the Dharma. Zhi Qian got the courtesy of Sun Quan and became a doctor. And build a temple tower for the monks. Tan Kejialuo and Tan Di are good at law, and translated the precept book "Monks Be Cautious" of Maha monks. Advocating that monks should abide by the Buddhist system and be bound by precepts is the beginning of Buddhism in Han Dynasty. Tan Di also translated a volume of "White Horse Temple altar Wude Karma". In addition, Senkai Kang also translated four books, such as The Elder Yu Jia's Questions and The Infinite Life Sutra. Wu's translation of Confucian classics began in Wuchang and flourished in Jianye. Zhi Qian specializes in translating classics, and the translated classics cover a wide range of disciplines and laws, with 88 volumes of 1 18 and 5 1 volume of 69. Kang Sanghui translated Six Degrees and other nine volumes. At that time, classical translation and multiplication were synchronized. Hinayana classics emphasize Zen and pay attention to nourishing the mind and heart ("nourishing the heart"); Mahayana emphasizes prajna. The translation of Buddhist scriptures and the propaganda and research of teachings at this stage laid a preliminary ideological foundation for the development of Buddhism in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. In addition, the temple tower buildings and Buddha statues in this period also have their own scales, but there are few existing ones.
During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, emperors such as Song, Qi, Liang and Chen all believed in Buddhism. Liang Wudi believes in Buddhism and calls himself a "Sambo slave". He gave his life to the temple four times and was redeemed by the state. He set up a large number of temples and Liao Dynasty, gave lectures in person and held a grand fast. There were 2,846 temples and more than 82,700 monks and nuns in the Liang Dynasty. In Jiankang (now Nanjing, Jiangsu Province), there are more than 700 large temples with tens of thousands of monks and nuns. Although Buddhism was banned in the Northern Dynasties during the reign of Emperor Taizu of the Northern Wei Dynasty and Emperor Wudi of the Northern Zhou Dynasty, on the whole, emperors of all dynasties supported Buddhism. During the Northern Wei Dynasty, Wen Chengdi excavated Yungang Grottoes in Datong. After Emperor Xiaowen moved to Luoyang, he began to build Longmen Grottoes in memory of his mother. At the end of the Northern Wei Dynasty, there were 4 15 volumes of Buddhist scriptures, and 19 19 volumes. At that time, there were about 30 thousand temples and about 2 million monks and nuns. There are more than 4 million monks and nuns under the jurisdiction of monks and nuns in the Northern Qi Dynasty, and there are more than 40,000 temples. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, a large number of foreign monks came to China to preach Buddhism, among which Qiu Mo, Qiu Na badra, Pearl Krabs, Bodhi Six Fingers, Lenore Motti and so on were famous. A group of believers from China also went to India to study. For example, the famous Fa Xian, Zhi Meng, Song Yun and Sheng Hui went to North india tourism and brought back a large number of Buddhist scriptures.
The development of Buddhism in Sui and Tang Dynasties, through Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, created conditions ideologically and economically for the establishment of Buddhist sects with China characteristics in Sui and Tang Dynasties. After Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty unified the Northern and Southern Dynasties, he ordered the construction of a temple in Wuyue Resort, and restored the temple Buddha statues destroyed during the ban on Buddhism in the Northern Zhou Dynasty. Daxingshan Temple is a national temple that implements Buddhist policies. It was established in Daxing City, the capital (southeast of Chang 'an City in Han Dynasty). During Renshou period (60 1 ~ 604),1stupa was built all over the country, and translation sites were widely set up, so that Chinese and foreign translators and famous monks could translate and interpret Buddhist classics. Following Emperor Wen's policy of protecting Buddhism, Yang Di established the famous Huiri Dojo in Yangzhou as a stronghold for spreading Buddhism, and continued to develop the translation of the previous generation, so that Buddhism flourished. During the Renshou period, there were 3,792 important monasteries, 230,000 monks, 46 collected scriptures with 3286 16 volumes, 3,853 restored old scriptures and built old statues1508,940.
The Tang Dynasty was the heyday of Buddhism in China. Although the emperor of the Tang Dynasty claimed to be the descendant of Laozi, the ancestor of Taoism, and respected Taoism, he actually adopted a policy of parallel Taoism and Buddhism. Emperor Taizong got the help of monks and soldiers when he cleared up the separatist regime and put down the riots. After Zhao Xia acceded to the throne, he set up temples in "places where soldiers meet each other" all over the country, and set up a translation academy in Jionji, invited famous monks at home and abroad to translate and publicize the scriptures, and trained a large number of eminent monks and scholars. After Emperor Gaozong succeeded to the throne, he set up official temples in the Imperial Capital and the states to pray for the national Antai. Wu Zetian even ordered the states to set up Dayun Temple. At the end of the Tang Dynasty, Buddhist monks were treated with courtesy and rewards. Non-empty monks used to work in Xuanzong, Suzong and Daizong, and went in and out of the palace door to seal lord protector; After a moment of silence, Dai Zong abandoned the court for three days to show his condolences. In the Tang Dynasty, there were many famous monks in China, and their explanations of Buddhism surpassed those of the previous generation in depth and breadth, thus laying a theoretical foundation for the establishment of many sects with national characteristics. Moreover, Buddhist beliefs have penetrated into the people and created popular literary forms such as proverbs and essays. He has made great achievements in architecture, sculpture, painting, music and other aspects, enriching the treasure house of China's national culture and art. In the Tang Dynasty, a large number of foreign monks and scholars came to China to preach and translate scriptures, and many monks in China (such as Xuanzang and Yijing) took pains to study in India. Buddhist sects in China began to spread to North Korea, Japan, Vietnam and the Great Hall (now Indonesia), which strengthened the religious, cultural and commercial ties between China and other foreign countries. However, in the fifth year of Huichang (845), due to social and economic reasons, a large-scale ban on Buddhism occurred. Wuzong ordered the confiscation of temple land and property, the destruction of Buddhist temples and Buddha statues, the elimination of shamans and the return of monks and nuns. According to the records of the Tang Dynasty, more than 4,600 monasteries were demolished at that time, more than 40,000 Buddhist buildings such as Zhao Ti and Lan Ruo were confiscated, and 260,500 monks and nuns were forced to return to secular life. Buddhism has been hit hard.
The vigorous development of Buddhism in Sui and Tang Dynasties contributed to the establishment of Mahayana Sect. What is important is Tiantai Sect founded by Zhiyi; Three schools founded by Ji Zang; Faxiangzong founded by Xuanzang and Kui Ji; There are three schools of law founded by Daoxuan, Fali and Huai Su, namely Nanshan, Xiangbu and Dongta. Pure land Sect, created by Tan Luan in the Northern Wei Dynasty, merged with Taoism and good guidance in the Tang Dynasty in Sui Dynasty; Hong Ren disciples Shen Xiu and Huineng founded Zen Buddhism respectively, including Northern Sect and Southern Sect. After the middle Tang Dynasty, there appeared five schools of Zen successively: Luyang, Lin Ji, Cao Dong, Yunmen and Fayan. Hua Yanzong founded by Fazang; Tantric Buddhism was founded by Indian monks Subhuti, Vajrayana, Bukong and Huiguo. After the establishment of these sects, with the development of China's foreign exchanges in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, they soon spread overseas.
During the early Song Dynasty and the Northern Song Dynasty, the imperial court adopted a protection policy for Buddhism. In the first year of Jianlong (960), there were 8,000 Buddhists in Purdue, and then 157 people went to India to seek dharma, and made the Commission for Discipline Inspection of the CPC Central Committee engrave the Tripitaka from Yizhou (now Chengdu, Sichuan). In the first year of Taiping Xingguo (976), there were 170,000 Buddhists in Pudu, and a translation institute was established in five years, which resumed the translation of Buddhist scriptures that had been interrupted for170 years since the sixth year of Tang Yuanhe (81). At the same time, monks from the western regions and ancient India came to China with scriptures in an endless stream, and the Pure Land Sect (1034 ~ 1037) initially reached more than 80 people. The scale of translating classics exceeded that of the Tang Dynasty, but the achievements were not as good as that of the Tang Dynasty. Zen Buddhism, especially Lin Ji and Yunmen, is the most prosperous, followed by Tiantai, Huayan, Legalism and Pure Land. Due to the mutual integration of various sects, it provides "the consistency of religion (Tiantai and Huayan)" and "the consistency of pure Zen", so Huayan Zen and Buddha-chanting Zen are widely popular. In addition, Tiantai Sect is divided into Shanjia Sect and Shanwai Sect, and the folk Buddhist association is particularly prosperous and has great influence. In the fifth year of Tianxi (102 1), there were nearly 460,000 monks and nuns and nearly 40,000 temples in the world, which was the peak of the development of Buddhism in the Northern Song Dynasty. During Hui Zong (1101~1125), because the imperial court believed in Taoism, it ordered Buddhism and Taoism to merge and change the temple into a Taoist temple, and Buddhism was once hit.
Although the Southern Song Dynasty was peaceful and Buddhism in the south of the Yangtze River still maintained a certain grand occasion, due to the official restrictions on the development of Buddhism, all other schools except Zen and Classics have declined, far from the past. Zen did not stand on words and did not emphasize Confucian classics, so it was less affected when Huichang banned Buddhism and the Five Dynasties mutiny. Pure Land Sect emphasized that chanting the name of Amitabha was simple and easy, and after Beining, the Zen monk returned to the pure land, so it continued to be popular in modern times.
On the one hand, Neo-Confucianism in Song Dynasty absorbed the thoughts of Buddhism and Zen, thus enriching the contents of Confucian classics, on the other hand, it criticized and rejected Buddhism. Ouyang Xiu is the most famous Buddhist liberator, but his thought of releasing Buddhism was opposed by Song Qi, a monk, Zhang Shangying, Li Gang and Liu Mi, prime ministers of the Song Dynasty. Zhang Shangying founded the theory of harmony among the three religions in the book "On the Protection of the Law". He believed that Confucius' Tao and Buddhism's intimate understanding and bodhi supremacy were no different from Confucianism's treatment of skin diseases, Taoism's treatment of vascular diseases and Buddhism's treatment of bone marrow diseases, and the three religions did not go against their original intentions. Liu Mi's theory of the fairness of the three religions has also played the same role.
The rulers of the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties advocated Tibetan Buddhism, but they also adopted a protection policy for Buddhism in the Han Dynasty. Buddhism such as Zen Buddhism and Legalism continued to spread and develop. There are many monasteries, with 2 1.3 million monks and nuns. The central and local governments have set up a strict monk official system to supervise it, and promulgated the "Bai Tai Qing Gui Revision" and printed the famous Puning Temple version of the Tripitaka.
After the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, four great scholars, Mohong, Zhenke, Deqing and Xu Zhi, appeared, and further developed the theories of Zen, religion and law, integrating Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, so they were welcomed by scholars and people, making Buddhism more China-like.
In the early Qing Dynasty, the royal family worshiped Tibetan Buddhism and adopted a restrictive policy towards Han Buddhism. In Kangxi, the ban was slightly relaxed, and monks who lived in seclusion in the mountains in the late Qing Dynasty returned to Beijing in succession, which made the declining Buddhism present an active atmosphere for a period of time. Although Yongzheng attached great importance to Tibetan Buddhism, he advocated that Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism should be used differently, with the same body and in parallel, so as to provide the integration of various Buddhist factions. He personally produced the Records of Distinguishing Demons and Quotations of Imperial Selection, which stipulated that all Buddhists should read Buddhism regardless of sectarian similarities and differences, which had an important influence on modern Buddhism. The publication of "Long Zang" and the editing of "Four-body Combination of Han, Man, Mongolia and Zang and the Full Curse of the Tripitaka" in Qianlong period played a certain role in promoting the development of Buddhism. Since the end of the Qing Dynasty, Yang and Ouyang, under the impetus of Buddhism in Japan and Western Europe, have set up a sutra engraving institute, a Buddhist college and a Buddhist society, which has opened up a new era for the study of Buddhism. Modern thinkers in China, such as Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong, Zhang Taiyan and Liang Qichao, were all influenced by Buddhism. Buddhism thought was one of the ideological sources of Tan Sitong's establishment of benevolence system. In addition, a number of famous monks such as Xia Yue, Jingjin, Yuan Ying, Taixu, Hongyi, etc. have also risen to engage in the work of revitalizing Buddhism, bringing a new atmosphere to Buddhism.
B.
Tibetan Buddhism, or Tibetan Buddhism (commonly called Lamaism). It was formed in the second half of 10 century. /kloc-began to spread in Mongolia in the middle of 0/3rd century. Up to now, Mongolia, Turkey, Yugur and other ethnic groups still believe in Tibetan Buddhism.
The development of historical Buddhism in Tibet can be divided into pre-flood period and post-flood period. The former banned Buddhism for more than 200 years from the 7th century to 838. There are different opinions about the beginning of the latter. According to Zhong, it started in 978 A.D. and has been around for a thousand years.
At the beginning of Hong Qian period, Tubo Zampsong Zagambo married Nepalese Bhrikuti Devi and Princess Wencheng of Tang Dynasty, and built Jokhang Temple and Jokhang Temple for the Buddha statues they brought. Legend has it that Indians, Gesaro and Nepalese were invited to translate a small number of classics to Da 'er and Da Tianshou monks of the Han nationality, but no Sangha was established. According to the Book of Changes, Biography of the Great Monks in the Western Regions in the Tang Dynasty, at that time, Tang Priest returned to India mostly by way of Tubo, and some people were treated by the lords. When Chide Zuzan married Princess Jincheng in the Tang Dynasty, he built many temples and introduced Han Buddhism. At the same time, due to the turmoil in the western regions and the invasion of the East, monks from Khotan and Central Asia also flowed into Tubo in large numbers, and Chide Zuzan took them in. He also sent people to Gangdise Mountain to meet Indian tantric scholars Fomi and Foji, and he would politely decline in the future. In his later years, he sent four ministers, including Sang, to the Han Dynasty to retrieve a large number of ancient books and bring back a monk. After Chide Zuzan's death, the noble ministers who worshipped this religion came to power and launched the first movement to ban Buddhism, expelling the monks of Han and Nepalese and tearing down temples. It was not until Zampa Chisong Dêzain grew up that Buddhism was revived. In Chisong Dêzain, Jihu and Lotus Peanut were invited from India to build the Samye Temple, so that monks could become monks and establish the Sangha system. Translators are welcome to translate classics. He also called Buddhists to debate with local believers to destroy the roots and promote Buddhism; A debate was held between Han monks and Indian monks to unify their beliefs. After Chisong Dêzain, he experienced two generations: Munizump and Sena Rechi Desongzan. When Rebazizudzan was in power, he asked the Indian and Tibetan monks to examine and approve the translated names, edit Brahma Tibetan vocabulary, revise the translated scriptures and compile three translated scriptures. According to Garden's catalogue, there are more than 700 kinds of classics, laws, theories and annotations translated before this. He also stipulated "seven domestic monks", appointed monks to play a big role, and gave military and political power. Finally, the anti-Buddhist minister murdered Chizu Dezan, made his brother Langdama his successor, and prohibited Buddhism from spreading in Tubo. After Buddhism was banned, it took more than 100 years (838 ~ 978) for Buddhism to be reintroduced into Tibet from Duokang, and the post-flood period began.
Tibetan Buddhism was formally formed in the Houhong period. The word Lama means "guru" in Tibetan. In esoteric Buddhism, the teacher is respected as a Buddha, and the guru advocates "four conversions", which is different from the "three conversions" in the early Buddhism. The characteristics of Tibetan Buddhism in this period are as follows: first, a large number of classics and teachings of the highest yoga department of Tantric Buddhism, which prevailed during the Polo Dynasty in India, were translated; Second, the formation of various sects on the basis of Tantric inheritance. By the beginning of13rd century, the translation work was basically completed. In the past 200 years, not only many Indian monks went to Tibet to preach and translate scriptures, but also a large number of Tibetan monks went to India and Nepal to study French and later became famous translators. There are more than 300 famous translators on both sides. These translations were later included in Ganjul and Danjul. 1680 engraved Beijing edition, Ganjul has 1055, Danjul has 3522, and * * has 4577. Dege edition is engraved on 1730, Ganjul has 1 1 14, Danjul has 3559 and * * has 4673. The Tibetan Tripitaka, which is mainly photocopied by the Japanese Beijing edition, has Ganjul 1055 volumes, Danjul 4907 volumes and * * 5962 volumes. The Tripitaka in Chinese and Tibetan languages is short and long. China's tripitaka consists of agama, Nirvana Sutra and Tathagata Sutra, among which there are Ten Reciting Methods, Four Divisions, Misha Sailu and so on. About the great wisdom stationery collection, the great bodhisattva theory, the achievement theory, the Shunzheng theory and other important classics, the details are as follows. There are a lot of classics, theories, explanations and works of the Supreme Yoga Department of esoteric Buddhism in the Tibetan tripitaka "Ganzhuer" and "Danzhuer", as well as the middle view, karma, argument, medicine, calendar calculation and skillful work, which are all lacking in Chinese translation. In addition, there are a large number of writings by various schools of eminent monks in Tibet, but none of them have been translated into Mongolian, starting in Yuan Chengzong (1295 ~ 1307) and ending in Ming Shenzong (1573 ~ 16 19). The Manchu translation of Tibetan Scriptures was completed in the last years of Qing Dynasty (1736 ~ 1795).
Various schools of Tibetan Buddhism gradually formed in the later period of Hong Zhong. Before the flood, there was only a dispute between Buddhism and Buddhism, and there were no different factions within Buddhism. In the later period of Hong Zhong, due to different inheritance, several sects appeared. The larger ones are Ma Ning, Gadang, Sakya, Kagyu and Gelugpa, while the smaller ones are Jesse, Jueyu, Juenang, Guozha and Sharu. Although this religion is the primitive religion in Tibet, it gradually merged with Buddhism in the later period of Hong Zhong, and some of them became a sect of Buddhism.
C.:
Yunnan Dai Buddhism and other minority Buddhism belong to the Pali language family, that is, Southern Buddhism, which has different development and characteristics from the northern Hinayana Buddhism. There are relatively complete versions of Hinayana Sutra and Sanzang in China. Fa Xian, a monk, went to Shizi country (now Sri Lanka) to copy scriptures, but it is impossible to verify whether the original version of Zaagama translated with him is Pali. In the Southern Dynasties, Qi Yongming's Interpretation of Pipa Sand (489) and DuDu's Interpretation of Taoism (5 15) both originated in the south. China legalists' four-division method of law collection department is also in the same system as the southern spread. When explaining the meaning of law, practitioners often cite the theory of "understanding the law of Vipo Sha". China's precepts of becoming a monk were originally taught by more than ten people, including Buddhist monk Bhikuni Tiesaro. Therefore, the precepts of the Han dynasty have a deep origin with the spread to the south. There are also many similarities in doctrine. In Sanzang's Biography to the South, Xiao Buben's journey to Tibet is a collection of all kinds of paramita deeds, acknowledging that Buddhism and Taoism are different from smelling Taoism and are the first of Mahayana theories. In particular, the idea of "pure mind, infected by guest dust" is also in line with the basic idea of "containing the same life truth and preventing guest dust" in the early Zen of Nantianzhu. Modern research has found that Dharma's view of face and wall may be related to the application of the theory of spreading south from place to place. It can be seen that there is a profound and complicated relationship between Bali Buddhism in the south and Mahayana Buddhism in the Han Dynasty.
Bali, a sect of Buddhism spread to the south, has historical data. In the middle of the 7th century, it was introduced from Myanmar to the Dai area in Yunnan, China. At first, there was no pagoda temple, and the classics were just passed down from mouth to mouth. 1 1 Around the century, Buddhism disappeared because of the spread of war and people's flight. After the war subsided, Buddhism spread from Mengrun (now Qingbian, Thailand) to Xishuangbanna via Jingdong, Myanmar, and then to the Buddhist scriptures written by Tairun. This is the Runpai Buddhism in the Dai area now. In addition, another Myanmar Baizhuang Buddhism was introduced to Dehong Prefecture and other places. It was not until the second year of Jingyan in the Southern Song Dynasty (1277) that the Dai language was created that the Bayeux Sutra was carved. In the third year of Ming Dynasty (1569), when Princess Jinlian of Myanmar married the 19th Xuanwei ambassador, the king of Myanmar sent a monk group to preach with Sanzang classics and Buddha statues. At first, a large number of pagodas and temples were built in Jinghong area, and many Burmese monks spread Buddhism to Dehong, Gengma, Menglian and other places, and then left-leaning Buddhism prevailed among Dai people in these areas.
The classic content is the same as that of Sanzang of the Pali language family in the south, but the arrangement is slightly different. Sanzang ancient books include transliteration and annotation of Pali in Dai language, some important translations of Dai language, and a large number of works in Dai language and Brown language, including astronomy, calendar, medicine, history, poetry, legends and Buddhist stories.
At present, Buddhism in Yunnan can be divided into four schools according to their names: Run, Baizhuang, Duolie and Zuoyou, and can be subdivided into eight tribes. Dai boys must become monks at school age, study cultural knowledge in monasteries, and return to the secular world when they are close to adulthood. Individuals who are considered outstanding can continue to study in the temple and gradually become formal monks according to their level of becoming monks. Generally speaking, the monk group can be divided into Pa (Misha), Du (Monk), (Elder Du Tong), (Elder Samoan Sect), Sinhalepo (Elder Monk King and Master, this monk group has been vacant for a long time), Pa Zhaohu (Elder Buddhist) and (Elder Monk). Or increase the Pano (Walking Boy) level before Pa and the Dulong (Sandu) level to ten after du. Promotion from Grade 5 or above is very strict, and the last two grades are only awarded to the Dai and Bulang nationalities in Xishuangbanna, becoming the highest religious leader in the region.
First of all, Huang Huali is a new variety cultivated by Zhejiang Agricultural University. The tree is robust, flower buds a