From the 3rd century BC to the 2nd century BC, the social economy and slavery in Rome developed rapidly. During this period, Rome's handicrafts and commerce also developed. In Rome and some cities in Italy, there have been large-scale handicraft workshops to make weapons, farm tools and various daily necessities. Handicraft workers are mostly freemen, but some use slave labor. Moreover, the division of labor of handicraft industry is becoming more and more specialized, and the products are gradually diversified.
By the early days of Rome, handicrafts had developed significantly in Italy and other provinces. Compared with before, production tools and technologies have been improved, water mills have been gradually popularized in grinding and mining, multi-pulley and lifting devices have been applied in construction, and drainage devices have been applied in mines.
There are more than 80 kinds of handicrafts in Rome. At that time, handicraft production departments also increased, with fine division of technology and diverse products. In the ruins of Pompeii, people found woolen cloth, jewelry, masonry, spices, glass, iron, grinding, bread and other workshops, which reflected the development of local handicrafts.
The mode of production at that time, in Italian handicraft production, was mainly small and medium-sized workshops, with several employees or slaves as helpers. They are often set up along the street, with shops for sale in front and important processing and production sites behind. Of course, there are also large workshops that use dozens or hundreds of slaves, such as the pottery workshop in Altaiu, and their products can be shipped to all parts of Italy and even other provinces.
In the city of Ida Larrea, metal smelting and manufacturing were quite developed at that time; The glass and metal manufacturing industries in Kapuya and other cities in Campania are very prominent; The pottery industry in Aletius has reached a fairly high level. During this period, the handicraft industry in this province also developed rapidly. In some eastern provinces, famous traditional handicrafts began to revive, such as linen and jewelry in Egypt, phoenician dyes, glassware, fur products in Asia Minor, and bronze wares in Greece. It is sold all over Rome. At the same time, some provinces in the west began to flourish, and even some handicraft centers appeared. In southern Gaul, metals, textiles, ceramics, glass and other industries have sprung up, and their products are sold all over Western Europe. The handicraft industry in northern Gaul is also quite good.
* * * and Rome period, the mining industry also had great development. Silver, copper, lead, tin and iron ore in Spain, iron ore in Gaul, gold and iron ore in Danube region and tin and lead ore in Britain have all been mined.
(4), the Roman business.
From the 3rd century BC to the 2nd century BC, business and communication activities in various regions of Italy were quite active. Cato listed a series of Italian towns that produced and sold farm tools and daily necessities in his agricultural yearbook. Roman and Italian businessmen used the preferential conditions provided by Roman countries to engage in intermediate trade and transport various commodities to various markets. They also followed the Roman legion, provided military supplies for the army, bought and sold halogen products and slaves, and made huge profits from them. Roman trade can be seen.
Monetary reform in ancient Rome
During the Roman Empire, usury activities were particularly rampant in the eastern provinces, with an annual interest rate as high as 50%. Commercial and financial activities stimulated the development of money. Around the beginning of the 3rd century BC, Rome minted coins, first copper coins, and soon began to mint silver coins. In about 2 1 1 year BC, Rome carried out currency reform and issued a new silver dinar, which was equivalent to 10 ounce. From then on, it laid the monetary foundation of the silver standard system. As a medium of exchange, the circulation of coins has greatly promoted the development of commodity-currency relations and contributed to the birth and development of the financial industry. At that time, there were many small banks in Rome, specializing in deposits, loans, remittances and transfers.
Rome's Prosperous International Trade
The unification of the Roman Empire created conditions for exchanges between different places, and commercial activities jumped even more. The economic development in the province has also promoted the exchange of commodities. At that time, in addition to luxury goods, there were a large number of agricultural products and handicraft raw materials and products, which made the regional trade and foreign trade within the empire unprecedentedly prosperous.
In Rome at that time, the traffic was very developed. Sea, inland river, land passage and ancient trade routes, "all roads lead to Rome", have become the main arteries of Rome's internal and external trade, and caravans come and go in an endless stream.
In the west, Roman and Gaul merchants reached the North Sea and the Baltic Sea along the Rhine and Danube, and traded with Britain and Scandinavia. In the East, Greek and Egyptian businessmen crossed the Red Sea and arrived in India and Sri Lanka via Arabia to trade with them. The Romans exchanged gold and silver for oriental spices, precious stones, exquisite handicrafts and textiles. During Octavian's reign, the Romans learned to sail to India by using the monsoon. According to relevant records, hundreds of merchant ships travel between Egypt and India every year. In Nero's time, it is said that the trade deficit between Rome and India was as high as 60 million Cestes, and a large amount of precious metals flowed to the east, which also caused complaints from Pliny the Old. At that time, China's silk enjoyed a high reputation in Rome and was regarded as a treasure. The Romans called China "Cerise", which means "the country of silk". According to the Book of the Later Han Dynasty, "In the ninth year of Emperor Huan, An Dun, king of the Great Qin Dynasty, sent an envoy to offer ivory, rhinoceros horns and turtles from Japan, which was really a matter." This is a historical record of direct contact between China and Rome. Since then, China-West sea routes have been opened, and friendly exchanges between China and Europe have become increasingly frequent. This route is also known as the Maritime Silk Road.
Roman Empire's Control over Commerce and Handicrafts
The Mediterranean region has always been an important place for commercial development, especially during the Roman Empire. On the one hand, the Roman Empire had commercial relations with neighboring countries and some ethnic groups farther away. It is very active in business dealings with Gaul, Danube Valley, Germania and other places. Its goods are even exported to Scandinavia and the Baltic coast, and have been extended to the Dnieper River basin. On the other hand, there was extensive trade among the provinces of the Roman Empire. The products in these trades are mainly agricultural products and local products from all over the world, such as grain, leather, hemp, fur, wax, ivory, Chinese fir, ebony, cotton and spices.
For these businesses and handicrafts, of course, the ruling bureaucratic aristocratic groups of the Roman Empire would not let themselves go. It has taken various measures to control them.
During the development of commerce and handicrafts, Roman guild organizations gradually developed. Their peers form some mutual aid societies or relief societies, aiming at connecting the feelings among members and handling relief matters. During the Roman Empire, there were more than 80 industries in Rome, and each industry had its own guild.
By the 2nd century, these industries had started weapons manufacturing, munitions manufacturing, shipbuilding, transportation, food production and circulation. Seeing the benefits of mastering these industries, the government began to supervise and manage these industries. Emperor Trajan once personally organized the Bakers' Guild, and Emperor Hadrian also organized the Sailors' Guild. In the Severus era of the 3rd century, all trades and handicrafts were forcibly merged and controlled by the state. These industries include tailors, weavers, metalworkers, fur workers, leather workers, saddle workers, potters, bakers, porters, dockers, cargo loaders, carpenters, masons, vendors, businessmen, hotel managers and even prostitutes. Later, Emperor Diocletian made a law requiring every city to register all industries. Then regulations were issued requiring the sons of these professionals to inherit their father's business.
In the late Roman Empire, Emperor Aureliano exercised stricter control over guild organizations, and he brought professional workers' associations and trade associations in big cities under the jurisdiction of the state. State functionaries strictly control every aspect and fix everyone's occupation and residence. For very important associations and organizations related to food trade and transportation, the government only turns them into administrative departments, makes them abide by strict discipline, and fixes their members in these organizations. This Roman state's strict management and control of industry and commerce also appeared in later European history.
The prosperity of Roman cities
On the basis of the development of handicrafts and commerce, the early cities of the Roman Empire reached unprecedented prosperity. Rome and Alexandria are both hubs of domestic and foreign trade and commodity distribution centers. Other prosperous cities include Putioli, Kapuya, ostia, Lavaine, Aquilia and Patawim. Cities in the east, such as Ephesus, Antioch and palmira, are even more prosperous.
In the western provinces of Rome, new cities have sprung up like mushrooms after rain, becoming handicraft and commercial centers in one fell swoop. The famous ones are Gaddis in Spain, Ruggieton in Gaul (Lyon), Windubona (Vienna) and Xinjidun in Danube region (Belgrade), Lundingham in Britain (London) and so on. With the establishment of Roman colonies and the expansion of language, new cities have also grown up in fortresses and camps in these areas and border areas. They generally have a certain degree of autonomy, and follow the Roman model, organize political institutions, decorate the city, and set up many industrial and commercial associations, while the political power is firmly in the hands of local dignitaries and wealthy businessmen.
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Dong Han Tong Wa (yáo) car
This is 1969 yáo car of a group of bronze chariots and horses unearthed in Leitai, Wuwei, Gansu.
This bronze chariot is about 44 cm high, 55 cm long and 4 1 cm wide, which reflects the height of handicraft industry in the Eastern Han Dynasty.
The bronze chariot is now in the Gansu Provincial Museum.
Negative basket figurines in Eastern Han Dynasty
The pottery figurines of the Eastern Han Dynasty unearthed in Xinjin County, Sichuan Province-negative basket figurines show the image of a man struggling to move forward with things, hence the name negative basket figurines. The simple lines and vivid shapes reflect the hard life of the working people at that time and the handicraft level at that time.
Tao Jing Model in Eastern Han Dynasty
The model well is 44.2 cm deep and 12.5 cm wide. It was unearthed in a tomb in Luoyang, Henan Province in 1954.
Relief of iron smelting stone in Eastern Han Dynasty
Stone reliefs reflect the situation of iron smelting in the Eastern Han Dynasty. On the left of the picture is a row of bricks blowing iron, the people in the middle are practicing iron, and the people on the right are mining. The original stone was unearthed in 1930 tengxian.
Iron-making water discharge model
Du Shi, the magistrate of Nanyang in the Eastern Han Dynasty, invented the mechanical principle of lever water hammer cam, which was driven by water to blow iron making. The manpower is saved and the ironmaking quality is improved. This kind of water platoon was used until the Tang Dynasty. It was used 1000 years earlier than Europe. This picture is Wang Zhen's model of iron smelting water platoon copied according to the relevant records in the Book of the Later Han Dynasty and the Book of Agriculture. It is now on display at the Chinese History Museum.
The carriage and stone chisel cast in the Eastern Han Dynasty also represented the handicraft level in the Han Dynasty.
Great achievements-Dahan's technology is ahead of the world.
There are many scientific superstars in Dahan, among which Treatise on Febrile Diseases by Ma Feisan and Zhang Zhongjing, initiated by Hua Tuo, represented the highest level of medical science in the world at that time. As a generation of great scientists, Zhang Heng and Cai Lun, the armillary sphere and seismograph made by the former are not only great achievements in science and technology, but also promote the development of materialistic world outlook; The papermaking invented by the latter profoundly changed the cultural process of the whole human race. ...
I. Science and Technology in the Western Han Dynasty
Regardless of territory or population, the Han Empire was an absolute world leader at that time, comparable to the prosperous Roman Empire. According to the data of 1 year population survey (which is said to be accurate), there are12.2 million households in the Western Han Dynasty with a total population of 59.6 million. During the period of Augustus (27 BC-A.D. 14), the population of the Roman Empire was estimated to be 30050 million in Europe, slightly less in Asia and less than 20 million in Africa.
It is said that in the 1 century, the bureaucracy of the Western Han Dynasty had130,000 officials, with an average of only one for every four or five hundred residents. Compared with the total population, the number of officials is small enough; And throughout the history of China. Their main function is to collect taxes, defend the country from external attacks and consolidate the dynasty from internal subversion. Under this administrative background, driven by other social factors, the science and technology of the Western Han Dynasty has developed vigorously.