Ancient Indian civilization with many surnames
First, the civilized process of more division and less unification.
Natural Environment The geographical scope of ancient India is not limited to India today, but refers to the whole subcontinent, including Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and other countries today. In ancient India, no country named India, but Persians and ancient Greeks called the area east of the Indus River India, while China's history books and Han Shu called it "body poison", the later Han Dynasty called it "Tianzhu", and Tang Xuanzang changed it to "India" in "Records of the Western Regions". Obviously, this name comes from the name of the Indus River.
Ancient India is surrounded by the sea on three sides and the Himalayas on the north, so it is an independent triangular peninsula in geography. In the north, there are two major river basins, the plains and the Indus and Ganges rivers, which are beneficial to the development of agriculture. There are plateaus, rich forests and mineral deposits in the south, which are conducive to the development of handicrafts. Because of the vast subcontinent and good natural environment, ancient Indians did not have to take all risks to challenge the ocean.
Ancient India is also one of the cradles of human civilization. As far back as14 million years ago, there was a human ancestor Raemakers. Paleolithic cultural sites are mainly distributed in the northern peninsula. Neolithic cultural sites spread all over the subcontinent. From the late 4000 BC to 3000 BC, the peninsula entered the era of stone and stone combination. Around 2300 BC, the Indus Valley entered civilization. Therefore, there have been residents' activities in the subcontinent throughout prehistoric times until the emergence of civilization.
Ancient India can be said to be the melting pot of the world's races. There are short black people, primitive Austrian people, Dehlavi people, Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Dayue people, white Huns and so on. More precisely, there are three major races (yellow race, black race and white race) and more than 200 dialects, so the composition of ancient Indian residents is more complicated.
If Chinese civilization is a process of long-term unification and short-term division, then ancient Indian civilization is the development trend of more division and less unification. Throughout its civilization process, there are roughly the following eras:
The first era was the Indus civilization era (about 2300- 1750 BC). This is the earliest civilization in ancient India, and its center is in Halaba and Mohenjo, so it is called "Halaba culture". But this civilization was not discovered until 192 1- 1924. Like Sumerian civilization in the two river basins, it has been buried underground for a long time and is unknown to people. Therefore, when the first volume of Cambridge History of India was first published in 1922, people still thought that ancient India entered civilization from the "late Vedic era" in 1000 BC. The discovery of Halaba culture pushed forward the time of ancient Indian civilization 1300 years.
The second era is the Vedic era (about 1500-600 BC). This era is divided into two stages: the early Vedic era (1500- 1000 BC) and the late Vedic era (900-600 BC). So it is divided into two stages because the history of ancient India has been blurred for nearly 200 years after the brilliant Indus civilization was destroyed for unknown reasons. From about 1500 BC, Indo-European Aryans invaded the subcontinent, but these Aryans were at the end of primitive society, so in the whole early Vedas, that is, during 1500- 1000 BC, ancient India retreated to the era of barbaric transition to civilization. It was not until 900 BC that the Aryans entered civilization, or that ancient India entered civilization for the second time. Scholars call the period of 900-600 BC the Late Vedic Age. However, compared with Halaba culture, the civilization of this period is really a poor creature.
The third era is the national era (600-400 BC). Sometimes it is also called "the early Buddhist era". This is an era in which ancient Indian countries developed synchronously, but it is also an era in which the warring States disputed and gradually laid a unified foundation, among which the country of Ganges is the most powerful. At this time, the economic, political and cultural center of ancient India also moved eastward, that is, the Ganges River basin became the center of civilization. As for the Indus Valley, it not only lost its important position, but also was occupied by the Persian Empire in 5 18 BC and became a province.
The fourth era was the Peacock Empire (324- 187 BC). This was the first unified era and empire in the history of ancient India, but the unifier was not a powerful country in various countries' eras, but an uprising leader from the peacock family in the Indus Valley who lost his important position. After Alexander destroyed the Persian Empire, the Indus Valley became the territory of Alexander's Empire. But as soon as Alexander left India, an uprising broke out here. The uprising leader Chandragupta not only drove away Alexander's defenders, but also completed the great cause of reunification and established an empire. On the one hand, it is the development trend of ancient civilizations in the world, on the other hand, it is also conducive to the development of economy, politics and culture. Therefore, during the reign of the third generation of Ashoka (269-232 BC), the empire entered a prosperous era. However, after the empire lasted 137 years, it was replaced by the Siouga dynasty (187-75 BC) in187 BC. Siouga dynasty was no longer an empire, initially ruled the entire Ganges River valley, and later became a small court favoring Mojeto. By 75 BC, the last emperor of Zanga dynasty was killed by Ganhua, but the Ganhua dynasty (75-30 BC) was unstable, and four kings ruled for 45 years, with an average of 1 1 year. In 30 BC, this small court was also destroyed by the small national security Duroy in South India. In short, after the demise of the Peacock Empire, the history of ancient India was ambiguous for a long time; Second, foreign invasion. In summer, there are Greeks, Cypriots, rest people and big moon people. Among them, only China's Dayue family established a stable regime in the northwest of ancient India.
The fifth era was the Guishuang Empire (1-3rd century). The founder of Guishuang Empire was a member of Dayue family who lived in Dunhuang and Qilian Mountains in China. In the 2nd century BC, the nomadic Dayue family was defeated by Xiongnu, moved westward to Central Asia, and then occupied the summer, and gradually changed from nomadic life to agricultural life, and the social system gradually changed from primitive society to class society. Zhang Qian went to the Western Regions and came here in 139 BC. At this time, the Yue people were divided into five tribes, and the chief called them "Mao Hou". /kloc-0. At the beginning of the 20th century, Kukula Kadeses (1 5-65) of Guishuang Maohou wiped out other Maohou, unified the five major tribes and established Guishuang. Kujura Kadfisses also attacked the Kabul River basin and Kashmir in the south, which laid the foundation of the empire. After the death of Kujura Kadfises, his son Yan Gaozhen (65-75) succeeded him. He went south to invade India and occupied the Ganges Valley. By the third generation of King Ganeshiga (78- 102), Guishuang Empire entered its heyday, and its capital was Fulousha (now Peshawar, Pakistan). At this time, the empire spanned Central Asia and South Asia, and ranked as the four largest empires in the world with the Eastern Han Empire of Rome, Rest in Peace and China. At the same time, in 90 AD, Gui Shuang sent 70,000 troops to attack Ban Chao stationed in the western regions. There are few soldiers in Han Yan, and they are very scared. However, Ban Chao took advantage of Gui Shuangjun's expedition and the shortage of rations, "closed the valley" and sent an ambush to kill his troops who sought help from Qiuci, forcing Gui Shuangjun to retreat to the south of Qingling and maintain peaceful relations with the Eastern Han Dynasty.
Ganeshiga fought all his life and expanded the territory of the empire, but he also satisfied the people with the suffering of the war, so that he could not stand his expansion policy, so when he was ill in bed, people covered him with quilts and suffocated him. After his death, the empire began to decline. In the 3rd century, the empire was divided into several small principalities. The history of ancient India has entered a vague stage again. Until the rise of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century. In 425, the remnants of Xia Guishuang were also destroyed by dumb people (White Xiongnu).
It is not difficult to see from the above times that from 2300 BC to the rise of Gupta Empire, ancient India was a period of division among countries except the Peacock Empire in 137 and the Guishuang Empire in 100. Even a vague era.
Second, the lost Indus civilization.
Discovery of Civilization As mentioned above, before 1924, scholars said that the first chapter of ancient Indian civilization began in the Vedic era, which is of course a wrong understanding. 192 1 year, British archaeologists discovered the site of Halaba in the upper reaches of the Indus River, 1924, and they discovered the site of Mohenjo's heroes in the lower reaches. According to scientific determination, these are some ancient civilizations from 2300- 1750 BC. It is 1 10,000 years earlier than the Vedic civilization. The news from India shocked the academic circles all over the world at that time, because the civilization of these sites was not only surprising, but also made people find that the Vedic civilization was simply a dark and retrogressive era.
The scale of civilization: Hero in Mohenjo and Halaba are the ruins of urban civilization, both of which are more than 4.8 kilometers in circumference. These cities are composed of the Acropolis and the Lower City (residential areas), and each city has about 35,000 residents. The two cities are 644 kilometers apart, forming two centers, which are obviously two independent national capitals. Later, archaeologists discovered hundreds of similar sites, large and small, which were not confined to the Indus Valley, and their geographical distribution was much larger than that of ancient civilizations in early Egypt and the two river basins. Obviously, this is a civilized era with a relatively large distribution, but it is also an era that has been completely forgotten by people. If Sumerian civilization can still find its shadow from myths and legends, then Indus civilization even has no shadow of myths and legends. Fortunately, archaeologists discovered it, which made these large and small sites buried underground for more than 3,000 years see the light of day again, and also let us know the general situation of their civilization.
Indus civilization is characterized by bronze civilization. Copper products include not only weapons such as daggers, arrows and spears, but also production tools such as sickles, saws, axes, chisels and fishhooks. Agriculture was an important production department at that time. The crops planted are mainly barley, wheat, beans and sesame vegetables, and rice is also planted in places with good water resources. There are also dates, fruit trees and cotton, so India is the hometown of cotton. Residents are also engaged in animal husbandry, and domesticated animals include cattle, pigs, dogs and donkeys. Poultry and fish are also eaten.
Handicraft industry is relatively developed. In addition to bronzes, we have mastered the processing technology of gold, silver, lead, tin and other metals, and both hot working and cold working have reached a high level, especially metal utensils will be made by welding. Ceramic industry and textile industry also have a high level, such as spindles and spinning wheels, which are found in many sites. The existence of dye vat shows that the dyeing technology of textiles was mastered at that time. Pottery blanks are made of pottery wheels and then fired in a pottery kiln. The design of the pottery kiln is also very reasonable, and the flame can burn to the top floor. There are also some exquisite pottery products with pictures. In addition, handicrafts are also beautifully made, such as necklaces, rings, bracelets, arm bracelets, anklets, earrings and other jewelry, both gold and silver products, as well as ivory and gemstone products. Seals are its specialty. The seal is engraved with words and patterns. Characters have about 400 or 500 symbols, which is a sign of entering civilization, but these characters have not been explained yet.
Business is also very active. There are also things found in sites outside the Indus civilization center, such as the seals of the two river basins. Similarly, circular seals and metal products from the two river basins were also found in these sites, which indicates that there are commercial and trade exchanges with the two river basins. Scholars believe that this long-distance trade is carried out by sea, and the seal also has the pattern of the ship. In addition, there are stone hammers in the ruins, and there are binary and decimal methods, which shows that its weights and measures system is also very developed, or that the creators of civilization are some haggle over every ounce residents.
The scale of this civilization can best be reflected in urban sites and their architectural arts. Among many urban sites, there are only a few large-scale sites, among which Halaba and Mohenjo are the largest legal heroes, and Mohenjo is the best preserved. Therefore, we will learn about the urban civilization of the Indus River by introducing the heroic ruins of Mohenjo.
Mohenjo's legal heroes cover 266 hectares. Weicheng is built on a brick platform in the west, and the residential area and commercial center are located in the east. These two parts are surrounded by a wide brick wall, which makes them form a whole. There are tall and thick walls and towers in the Acropolis. There are a series of buildings in the Acropolis: the center is a rectangular bath, which is12m long, 7m wide and 2.4m deep. It is made of bricks and coated with asphalt to prevent water leakage. There are water supply wells and drains near the bath. Scholars believe that this bath is not only used for bathing, but also a place for some religious ceremony. The west of the bathhouse is a big barn, and the east, south and north are magnificent buildings, which is obviously the place where rulers live, work and gather. The lower city is obviously built according to the plan, with straight streets, east-west direction, north-south direction and vertical intersection. The urban area is also divided into districts, and each district has several alleys, which also intersect vertically. The width of the main street is 10 meter, and the corner of the building at the street intersection is rounded, which does not hinder traffic. There are also many evenly distributed columns in the street, which experts think are lamp posts for night lighting. Under the vertically intersecting streets, there is a whole sewer network. The sewer is made of bricks and covered with a slate roof. There are building walls on both sides of the street, but the windows of these buildings are not facing the street, but facing their own yards. The doors are basically open to the alley and rarely open to the street. Judging from the streets, districts and buildings in the lower city, it is obviously a class society with great differences between the rich and the poor. Because some cities have clean streets, the buildings are luxurious floor-standing buildings with their own wells and toilets. The floor of the bathroom is inclined, and there is a sewer pipe leading directly to the outdoor street. Some buildings also have vertical clay pipes, indicating that the bathroom upstairs was designed by the owner of the building. Some urban areas are a different scene, with narrow streets, huts and huts, no sewers on the streets and no toilets indoors. These urban areas are obviously slums, and they must stink in hot weather, and the roads are muddy in rainy days.
Compared with the architecture of Egypt and Sumer in the same period, the architecture of Indus civilization has its own distinctive style. From the perspective of building materials, Egypt is a megalithic building, Sumer is a brick dried by the sun, and Indus civilization is a brick burned in a kiln, with a standard size; From the architectural style, they seem to pay more attention to practicality and efficiency than Egypt and Sumer. In terms of art, there are basically no murals and reliefs. But there are many animal patterns on the unique bronze and stone carvings, such as cows and unicorns, which are lifelike. Although the figures in stone carving are solemn and dull, their hair must be neat and tidy, and they look very aristocratic. A bronze sculpture dancer, wearing bracelets and armbands, wearing shawls and long hair, slim and fit.
The destruction of civilization and the unearthed cultural relics of the Indus civilization are all surprising. Who created these splendid civilizations? Because the words on the seal have not been understood so far, experts have put forward various hypotheses: some think that this civilization was introduced from Sumer; Some people think that it was created by the Dalai Lama; Some people say it was created by hybrids. As for its social system and social life, it is impossible to understand it only by archaeology. In a word, this civilization suddenly disappeared later. What is the reason for its destruction? Scholars also believe that this is a foreign invasion; One said it was a people's uprising. Because there are 13 adults, men, women and children lying in a house in the lower city, one of them has a scar of 146 mm on his skull, and there is also a body of an ivory sculptor's family, five of whom are children. But the problem is that some of these bodies still carry bracelets, rings and beads, and robbery and uprising generally do not leave treasures. Therefore, some scholars believe that it is a natural disaster such as an earthquake, and say that this earthquake occurred around 1700 BC, and then caused a flood. In short, opinions vary.
It should be noted that the development of Indus civilization is unbalanced. When the civilization in the central area was destroyed, some areas continued to develop. According to archaeological knowledge, it was not until around 1000 BC that the developed Indus culture appeared here. For example, in an area called Rotar, there is a good urban construction plan. There are rows of houses on both sides of the street, with complete drainage facilities on the ground and underground. About 200 seals and a shipyard were also found here. This is obviously the afterglow of the Indus civilization, or some survivors. However, perhaps Aryans are too backward to inherit these advanced cultures. The original inhabitants were driven or killed by Aryans, so the Indus civilization and its seal characters were completely forgotten by later generations.
Third, the socio-economic and social nature of ancient India.
Socio-economic Aryans entered the subcontinent around 1500 BC. Because they are still in a barbaric state, in the early Vedic era, although these invaders called themselves "Aryans", meaning noble people, and the local people were contemptuously described by them as a kind of "Dasa" or "Dasu" (male and female enemies) with dark skin and low nose, their social and economic situation was not satisfactory. At first, these nomadic people who are good at chopping and killing were mainly animal husbandry. They domesticated cows, sheep, horses, camels and elephants, and made cow dung into cakes as fuel. Later, they gradually gave priority to agriculture, and learned to use two cows to pull a plow to plow the land and harvest crops with sickles, but they still did not forget to leave some fields or grasslands as places for grazing livestock. They can also make chariots, trucks, boats, plows and various household appliances. Blacksmiths make all kinds of bronze and bronze tools and utensils, and also make all kinds of gold and silver decorations. Iron also began to appear. However, judging from the situation of agriculture and handicraft industry, it is likely to be learned from the afterglow of Indus civilization, because this is the scope of daily necessities, unlike the words on the seal, which has little to do with barbarians.
In the late Vedic era, the popularization of ironware provided favorable conditions for the development of the middle and lower reaches of the Ganges River. At this time, the re-cultivation method has been used in agriculture. According to the literature, sometimes 24 cows are used to pull a horizontal heavy plow for deep ploughing. There are furrows in the fields, the application of animal fertilizers has been paid attention to, and some irrigation systems have been established. Animal husbandry still occupies a certain position in economic life, which is the heritage of barbarians. Handicraft industry has developed to a certain extent, and there are many occupations mentioned in the literature, such as carpenter, blacksmith, goldsmith, jeweler, bowstring craftsman, mat craftsman, Potter and so on. Even people who make drinks, hairdressers, messengers, ferrymen, drummers, etc. This shows that the division of labor is developing in a diversified direction. Commodity exchange is still in the stage of barter, but some people borrow money for profit.
Great changes have taken place in the social economy of various countries. First of all, iron is widely used. The production level and output of agriculture have been greatly improved, and rice planting is quite popular. Animal husbandry is still valued, and every village has a common pasture. The division of labor in handicraft industry is more specialized. There are 18 kinds of craftsmen mentioned in the literature, and important handicrafts also organize guilds. Guild leaders are usually powerful people with access to the king. The biggest change in each country's era is that business is particularly active. At that time, there were eight major cities, commerce was conducted in the market of each city, and there were commercial routes connecting the cities. Businessmen also form chambers of commerce, with the purpose of controlling prices and seeking rich profits. The barter was cancelled, and the medium of exchange was money made of silver and copper. There are both condemned usury and normal lending. Foreign trade is also very active, with business contacts with Sri Lanka, Myanmar and West Asia. Businessmen generally form caravans, which are escorted by bodyguards. The caravans are relatively large, which shows that they have the nature of partnership. However, the records of the number of caravans in literature are usually not serious enough. For example, in Za agama, there is a story that 500 commercial trucks were robbed by 500 thieves in Jusaro. Zeng Yi Agama mentioned that 500 businessmen went out to sea to collect treasures and were killed on the island. In addition, the literature also mentioned that Polonius had 50 noble families and Kapilowei had 500 slaves. Obviously, these figures are for reference only. Ancient Indians had a bad habit that dictation was a voucher, but what was written was invalid.
The era of Peacock Empire is an era of social and economic prosperity. In agriculture, water irrigation has been further expanded than before. In particular, industry and commerce have made remarkable progress. At that time, the capital city of Fahrenheit was the center of imperial industry and commerce, with functional departments specializing in the specific business of industry and commerce. Handicraft workers in cities generally live in various blocks of the city and form trade associations. Trade at home and abroad is very active. Usually, the commodities traded are precious textiles, gems, decorations and spices needed by princes and nobles, and civilian needs such as mineral products, salt and wine are patented by the king. At this time, the inland trade has an imperial road from the northwest border to the east through the capital Fahrenheit, which constitutes the main trunk line of inland trade. Overseas trade includes trade with Sri Lanka, Myanmar, West Asia, Egypt and China. Some researchers believe that China's silk products have been exported to India at this time. However, the commercial trade at that time was mainly oriented to the upper class, which made the urban economy and the countryside rarely contact, thus making the countryside in a natural economic state with the remnants of rural communes for a long time.
In the period of Guishuang Empire, because the empire included many nationalities and regions with different levels of social development, the establishment of the empire provided conditions for economic and cultural exchanges and development between various regions and nationalities. The empire is also located on the "Silk Road" across Central Asia, which obviously contributes to the development of the empire's domestic and foreign trade. When I was in Ghana, the empire had frequent trade with Rome in the west and the Eastern Han Empire in China in the east. Indian jewelry, spices, ivory, Egyptian and West Asian glass, China's silk and lacquerware all passed through the territory of the empire in the East-West trade, which greatly benefited the ruling class and the businessmen in Guangxi and Shuang. The discovery of gold, silver and copper coins made by your pair in various places shows that the commercial trade of the empire was very active at that time.
The political system is also from aristocratic politics to centralization, from the diversity of countries to the singleness after the emergence of a unified empire.
In the early Vedic era, because the Aryans were still in the barbaric era, there were clan and tribal organizations and military democratic institutions unique to primitive society. The military leader of Aryans is called "Roche", the aristocratic meeting is called "Saba" and the people's meeting is called "Samiti".
By the late Vedic era, the elected Roche had developed into a hereditary monarch. There is a "ten generations" kingdom mentioned in the literature. However, although these little monarchs can be inherited, some of them have been dismissed, re-elected or even exiled, which shows that the status of monarchs is still not consolidated. Saba and Samiti still exist, which restricts the kingship and indicates that the political system at this time is still in the aristocratic political stage.
The political systems of different countries are diverse. Only two of the 16 big countries are republics, and the rest have developed into monarchies. 16 Small countries other than big countries are mostly small countries. At the same time, the political systems of these small countries are diverse and not exactly the same. 16 big country, mojito is the most powerful. It is exaggerated in the literature that there are 80,000 villages and towns under the jurisdiction of the state, and each village and town has a village head and a village committee under the leadership of the village head. At this time, the kingship was strengthened, but all five kings gained power by killing their fathers. Under the king, there are a large number of officials in charge of administration, justice and military affairs, as well as a great Council composed of village heads. The kingdom of mojito continued to expand outward. By the time of Nantuo Dynasty, there were 20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots and 3,000 elephants (another 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, 6,000 elephants and 200,000 infantry). Nantuo dynasty not only unified the Ganges River basin, but also began to have an imperial scale. However, this process was interrupted by Alexander's eastward invasion.
After the establishment of Peacock Empire, the political system changed from pluralism to singleness. At this time, the king, the supreme ruler, has integrated military and political judicial power and began to deify. The third king, Ashoka, claimed to be "the darling of the gods". The Code of Manu declares that the king is a god with human appearance. Like the sun, his eyes and heart are burning, and no one on earth can look at him. There is a huge bureaucratic system under the king, and ministers are in charge of the central ministries. The place is divided into several provinces, ruled by the governor, who is mostly a prince, so it is also a family color. In order to strengthen the rule, the empire established an army with 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 elephants and 10000 chariots. In addition, capable spies are everywhere, sending a series of reports to the capital through messengers and carrier pigeons. The means of maintaining order is ruthless. This is a strict bureaucratic society, which embodies the famous saying of Giodilier, the counselor of Gupta, the founding monarch-"Politics is the study of punishment". The emperor's life is also extremely luxurious. According to documents, when the king went out hunting, all the people who accompanied him were armed with Huntress. They ride chariots, horses or elephants, just like going out to war. During the religious ceremony, the court team had many elephants decorated with gold and silver, four-horse chariots, attendants with all kinds of gold or brass utensils filled with precious stones, many buffaloes, tame lions and leopards. Kings are usually guarded by 24 elephants. Besides waiters, there are maids, dancers, singers, musicians, nurses, masseurs, doormen and so on. However, the enjoyment of the emperor is not easy to sit back and relax. The king often changes his bedroom at night to prevent emergencies, which shows that there are sharp contradictions hidden in the palace.
The monarch of Peacock Empire is good at adopting the policy of combining leniency with severity and paying attention to morality. King Ashoka, for example, was originally said to be a vicious tyrant. He killed 99 brothers in order to seize the throne. He also specially selected the most ferocious people to establish a "hell on earth" and arbitrarily harmed the people. During the conquest of Guo Jia, Ling Jie, South India, King Ashoka captured 6,543.8+0.5 million people, and killed 6,543.8+0.5 million people on the battlefield, and several times as many people died. But after this war, it is said that he repented and turned to Buddhism. This is not so much a confession as a response to the needs of the situation. King Ashoka's ruling policy has indeed changed, that is, from violence to spiritual conquest, such as sending a missionary group to preach the "holy law." This is, of course, a ruling policy that has to be adopted to ease contradictions, because the empire has been established and it is no longer necessary to continue to engage in violent conquest. Therefore, King Ashoka preached benevolence and compassion, advocated religious tolerance, and prohibited sects from attacking each other. He made it clear that what he cared about was not what his subjects believed, but their behaviors and attitudes. He advocated non-violence, demanded not to kill, and even stipulated that the royal family should be vegetarian. Ashoka also advocates public welfare undertakings, such as building roads, planting trees, drilling wells and building pavilions to facilitate travel. He also improved the equipment for treating patients and sent officials to ask people about their sufferings. Ashoka was a famous diligent emperor in ancient times. It is said that he is reluctant to waste even the time to go to the toilet, and still asks reporters to report on state affairs to him. To commemorate his prestige, he also set up many huge sandstone columns all over the empire. These pillars are all carved out of a whole stone, more than 40 feet high. They are bell-shaped capitals in Persia, which have the shape of animals, and the pillars are engraved with religious laws and regulations that people should abide by. But all Ashoka's efforts can't be passed down from generation to generation, and most of his successors are mediocre and lack his ruling ability. So after Ashoka's death, the empire was divided until the last emperor was killed by a general from Yi nationality.
In ancient India, which has been turbulent for nearly two centuries, the centralized monarchy system was further strengthened when the third king of Guishuang Empire was tired of Sega. Although Ganeshiga was not an Indian, in order to consolidate imperial rule, he also believed in Buddhism and recruited a group of outstanding Buddhist scholars to his court, making Buddhism the spiritual pillar of imperial rule. However, Garnishiga does not exclude other religions. There are Greek gods, two river valley gods, Persian gods and Indian gods on the back of the coins of Guishuang Empire. So is it to maintain the rule of the empire, or he can't help but regard the gods all over the world as the spiritual tools of his empire's political rule and adopt an inclusive religious policy? However, despite his efforts to ease various contradictions within the empire, Guishuang Empire was still a short-lived empire, and Jia greasy Sejia himself was killed.
Of course, we can only examine the social nature of ancient India from its short unified era. Generally speaking, Peacock Empire is a slave society, and GuiShuang Empire is a transitional stage from slave society to feudal society. But in fact, there are differences of opinion on this issue.
From the perspective of land system, the land of Peacock Empire is also "the land under the world" on the surface, but it is actually divided into three categories: one is the land occupied by the state and the king; Second, the land occupied by monks and vulgar nobles; The third is the land occupied by rural communes. Land refers to the mountains, water sources, underground mineral deposits, uninhabited wasteland and farmland throughout the country. The cultivators of this kind of land only have the right to use the land, but have no ownership, and they have to pay taxes to the state; King's land refers to Wangzhuang, which is directly operated by him and the income belongs to the royal family. The laborers in Wangzhuang are slaves, employees and criminals. These people don't own land, and Wangzhuang will give them rations or wages according to their working conditions. There are also two situations in the territory of monks and vulgar nobles: one is fief, that is, land granted by the king, which can be tax-free or inherited, but has no ownership and cannot be bought, sold or transferred; Second, directly operated private farms. Part of this land was cultivated by their own servants and slaves, and part of it was cultivated by employees. This land can be bought, sold and transferred. The land occupied by rural communes is also different. First, public ownership; Second, both public and private, that is, water sources, forests, etc. It is public, and the land is allocated to every family. Villagers must pay taxes to the state. In addition, economically developed areas also have small land ownership.
From the perspective of slavery, the peacock empire was once a slave in the family. Is it a small farmer who takes slaves to farm, or a small farmer who breeds slaves to deliver meals? During the Peacock Empire, there were productive slaves in Wangzhuang and aristocratic territory. According to the Code of Manu, there are seven sources of slaves: prisoners of war, domestic slaves, slaves bought, slaves granted, slaves inherited, voluntary slaves replenished and criminals. But the empire also has various regulations on slaves: first, Aryans are generally not allowed to be slaves, and parents will be punished if they sell or mortgage their children as slaves; Second, slaves from Aryans should be redeemed by their relatives as soon as possible to restore their free status. Non-Aryan slaves should not be abused casually, such as letting slaves carry corpses, cleaning up feces, or beating and cursing slaves and destroying the chastity of female slaves. So some people say that this is moderate slavery. Some authoritative experts who have studied the history of ancient India for a long time even believe that the use of slaves in the field of production is limited. In this way, this problem is more complicated, because the limited use in the field of production means that slavery did not dominate the society at that time, or that this society was not a slave society. Therefore, this issue needs further discussion.
Third, many surnames and sects.
The caste system is a special product of ancient India. Westerners usually call it "caster system", while Indians call it "Varna system", which means color, quality or skin color. This system sprouted in the early Vedic era. Aryans who entered the subcontinent called themselves "Aryan Varna", that is, they regarded themselves as high school aristocrats and called the local residents "Dasavarna", which means hostile groups. With the internal division of Aryans, the difference between civilians and nobles appeared in the tribe. Civilians are called "Vedas" (meaning members of the Weiss clan), and nobles are called "Roshnia" (