Author Zhu Weibin

(Zhu Weibin, Lecturer, History Department, School of Humanities, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 5 10275)

This paper discusses the evolution of Roosevelt's attitude and policy towards China, and analyzes the internal and external factors leading to this evolution. It is pointed out that Roosevelt's anti-China policy is not only related to his own racist thoughts, but also to the great pressure of anti-China forces in the United States. 1905 before and after China boycotted American goods, Roosevelt tended to implement a loose Chinese exclusion policy, in essence, in order to ease the anti-American sentiment of China people and protect the interests of the United States in China from damage, rather than really preparing to give up the Chinese exclusion policy.

[Keywords:] theodore roosevelt Chinese exclusion legal interest group "open door"

Theodore roosevelt's Sino-US relations (190 1 ~ 1909) have recently attracted the attention of China scholars. Some papers discussed the relationship between Roosevelt and China. But no one has talked about Roosevelt's Chinese exclusion policy. This paper attempts to make a preliminary discussion on this issue.

one

Roosevelt was an anti-Chinese faction before he became president. 1894 When China and the United States signed the Treaty of Chinese Workers (1), he firmly supported the prohibition of Chinese workers from coming to the United States, thinking that allowing Chinese to enter the country without restrictions was a "white man's disaster". (2) At this time, Roosevelt advocated that China people should be completely excluded as a race. His attitude is inseparable from his racist thoughts. Roosevelt always advocated the superiority of white race, looked down on colored people, and always regarded yellow people as "the burden of white people." In his view, China people are "backward nations", lacking all the qualities of civilization, especially cohesion, and it is impossible to rank among the civilized countries in the world. However, Roosevelt was not a pan-racist, but he spoke highly of Qiang Bing, a rich country, which invaded and bellicose Japan through its own transformation. He looked down on China and China. Apart from China's backwardness and beatings, he also thinks that the people of China lack the fighting spirit of self-reliance and enterprising. Therefore, in Roosevelt's view, China can only be the victim of the triumph of white civilization in the world, and white people are born to assume the responsibility of educating and managing China people. And this kind of education and management can only be carried out on the land of China. Once a "backward race" like China enters the United States, it will bring disaster to American democracy and endanger American civilization. Therefore, China people must be excluded from the United States.

Roosevelt's anti-China argument not only comes from his racist thoughts, but also is influenced by American anti-China thoughts. Since the 1970s, in order to alleviate the increasingly intensified labor-capital contradiction in the west, the American ruling class has taken differentiation measures, boasting that Chinese workers have robbed white workers of their jobs, provoking white workers to oppose Chinese workers and setting off a wave of Chinese exclusion. Since 1980s, China workers have been restricted from entering the United States by government legislation. After graduating from Roosevelt University, he devoted himself to politics and was keen on various social and political activities. Naturally, he can't help but pay attention to the nationwide anti-Chinese movement. In this way, Roosevelt's racist thought found a strong point in the wave of Chinese exclusion. At the same time, the realistic anti-Chinese movement further strengthened Roosevelt's anti-Chinese thought.

two

From 190 1 when he succeeded the president to 1905 when China boycotted American goods, Roosevelt was in favor of strict Chinese exclusion. In recent years, the Chinese exclusion policy is extremely harsh in legislation and practice. Roosevelt not only supported the formulation of a strict Chinese exclusion bill, but also appointed extreme Chinese exclusion elements to control the immigration bureau, making the implementation of the Chinese exclusion bill far more demanding than the provisions of the bill itself.

In addition to his consistent racist stance, the main factor that prompted Roosevelt to adopt a strict anti-China policy was the pressure exerted by the anti-China forces in the United States on Roosevelt. Roosevelt could not ignore the strong demands of anti-China interest groups. Failure to meet these people's wishes means losing a large number of votes, which will have a disastrous impact on his political future.

Shortly after Roosevelt took office in September, 190 1 held a meeting with Congress to discuss the issue of Chinese exclusion. With the expiration of the geary Act (1902), Congress must make a new decision on the issue of Chinese exclusion, so the issue of Chinese exclusion became one of the main topics discussed by Congress in May1901to 1902. As soon as Roosevelt came to power, he was under strong pressure from the anti-Chinese forces. Samuel gompers, the leader of the American Federation of Labor, and James C.Needham, a representative of California, called on Roosevelt on June 190 1+0 1 and asked the President to continue to implement the strict Chinese exclusion policy. Other anti-China forces also exerted influence on Roosevelt in various ways. At that time, letters and petitions demanding the expulsion of China rained down on the White House. Roosevelt faced more anti-China forces than any previous American president. Although * * * and the party did not mention the issue of Chinese exclusion in the 1900 campaign platform, the situation at this time does not allow Roosevelt not to implement the Chinese exclusion policy. Fortunately, Roosevelt himself has always advocated Chinese exclusion, so it is not difficult for him to accept the demands of Chinese exclusion forces. 190 1 1 In his first annual speech to Congress, Roosevelt emphasized the necessity of passing the Chinese Exclusion Act, and held that "in order to fully and effectively implement the Chinese Exclusion Act", it should be implemented wherever necessary. [(3)] This is actually equivalent to supporting the proposal of applying Chinese exclusion to American territory and islands in the middle of the ocean. Roosevelt's position won applause from the anti-Chinese forces.

Roosevelt not only advocated Chinese exclusion, but also advocated strengthening Chinese exclusion. William W. William W. Lockhill, his adviser on Far East issues, once suggested that the current geary Act be extended to190465438+February, in the same period as the Sino-US Treaty of Chinese Workers of 1894, and then make plans. But Roosevelt refused to accept this proposal, and he tended to support the stricter Chinese Exclusion Act. [(4)]19011On February 6th, California Senator Julius Kahn proposed a Kahn motion to Congress. This is the most demanding in the 17 anti-China bill. Roosevelt expressed support for the bill. In a letter, he said, "My position ... has always been that we should formulate a stricter policy of excluding Chinese workers (except foreign students and businessmen in China)" [(5)]. In fact, all China people except students and businessmen are excluded from South China University of Technology, and the scope of restrictions stipulated in Bill and Jill Act is much more important. As the president of * * * and the party, Roosevelt's attitude directly influenced the congressional debate of * * * and the party. For a time, anti-China voices in Congress were rampant.

However, Roosevelt's Chinese exclusion policy was opposed by the "open door" forces. This school is mainly composed of people from the business, religious and educational circles who are connected with China. They are worried that too strict Chinese exclusion will make China take retaliatory measures and endanger their interests in China. They all asked Roosevelt to relax his Chinese exclusion policy. These people and their spokesmen resolutely opposed the Kahn Act in congressional hearings and debates. 1902 In April, Congress passed a compromise bill, and decided to continue to implement the current Chinese exclusion law and expand its scope of application to American territories. Although the bill is the result of the contest between anti-China forces and "open door" forces, it is obviously another victory for anti-China forces. On April 29th, despite China's opposition, Roosevelt signed the bill. 〔(6)〕

Roosevelt was in favor of the strict policy of excluding China, more because of the need of realistic policy at this time. In order to prepare for the 1904 presidential election, he dared not ignore the Chinese exclusion requirements of the labor organization and the western States, especially California. 1902, Roosevelt's close friend John Barrett helped him analyze the political situation in California. Various political forces in California supported Roosevelt, which is inseparable from Roosevelt's "obvious anti-China stance." In California, labor unions are "the key to the situation". He suggested that the president nominate a Californian to the cabinet while implementing the Chinese exclusion policy, which was very helpful to strengthen Roosevelt's political foundation in California. [(7)] barnett's analysis and suggestions had a great influence on Roosevelt. Roosevelt not only continued to use ultra-anti-China elements to control the Immigration Bureau, [(8)] but also transferred the Immigration Bureau from the Ministry of Finance to the Ministry of Commerce and Labor in 1903, giving it greater freedom to implement anti-China policies. 1in June, 904, Roosevelt appointed Victor H.Metcalf, a veteran of Chinese exclusion and a senator from California, as the Minister of Commerce and Labor, and brought him into the cabinet. When Congress discussed the new Chinese exclusion policy in April, Roosevelt also said that China will continue to implement the Chinese exclusion policy regardless of the treaty obligations between China and the United States. (9) As Secretary of State john hay said, Roosevelt was worried that if he didn't take a stand on the issue of Chinese exclusion, he would lose the votes of the labor organization and the west coast states. [( 10)] Roosevelt's firm anti-China attitude won the support of anti-China forces in the general election of 1904, and was re-elected as president in June of1.

However, from 65438 to 0904, the factors that restricted Roosevelt's Chinese exclusion policy began to appear, which made Roosevelt have to make appropriate adjustments to his Chinese exclusion policy after winning the election. First of all, under the pressure of the people and public opinion, the Qing government informed the United States at the beginning of the year that it would not renew the Sino-US Treaty on Chinese Workers190465438+February 7, suggesting that China and the United States renegotiate and sign a new immigration treaty. Roosevelt was caught off guard by China's resolute abrogation, because barnett, a close friend of Roosevelt, once confidently said that China was in danger of being seized by other countries. In contrast, Chinese exclusion is a piece of cake, and China will be happy to accept it, because China is counting on the United States to help it protect its territorial integrity. ((1 1)) Now China not only wants to abrogate the Covenant, but also actively proposes a draft New Testament, demanding a loose immigration treaty with the United States, and proposing that if it is not satisfied, it will impose corresponding restrictions on American personnel coming to China, which deeply touched Roosevelt. What's more, in May 438+065438+10, China informed the US to cancel the concession of the Guangdong-China Railway to the US-China Hexing Company, which was obviously regarded by Roosevelt as China's revenge on the US policy of excluding China. These measures taken by China are the external driving factors for Roosevelt to change his strategy. Secondly, American "open door" interest groups put more pressure on Roosevelt. China's business, academic and intellectual circles have been planning to boycott American goods since the autumn of 1904, which deeply disturbed the "open door" forces in the United States. They all asked Roosevelt to change the current Chinese exclusion policy. In July, Frederick W. Satler of Shanghai American-Chinese Company reminded Roosevelt that there was a strong anti-American sentiment "in the intellectual and business circles in China". If the United States does not change its policy of excluding China, the people of China may retaliate by excluding American trade in China. [( 12)] Not to mention boycotting American goods at this time, even claiming to boycott will have a disastrous impact on the United States in China. Similar views and opinions constantly stimulated Roosevelt. Even diplomats who are familiar with the Far East issues, such as William W. Rockhill and Huntington Wilson, advocate relaxing the restrictions of the Chinese exclusion law and allowing non-working Chinese to enter the United States from the perspective of safeguarding American interests in China. These pressures constitute the internal factors of Roosevelt's adjustment of Chinese exclusion policy.

However, internal and external pressures failed to prompt Roosevelt to take action in 1904. First of all, because the anti-China forces are still far stronger than the "open door" forces, they have put more pressure on the US government. Second, because Roosevelt won the election by relying on the votes of anti-China forces, he naturally dared not fail to meet their anti-China demands. Third, because China's boycott of American goods has not really put pressure on the US government. After Roosevelt won the election in June +065438+ 10 in 5438, he could not make a big turn in the policy of excluding China. On February 2, 65438, Roosevelt called a cabinet meeting to discuss the issue of China people coming to the United States after the expiration of the Sino-US Treaty. Finally, he decided that the existing Chinese exclusion law would remain in force until a new covenant was concluded. 〔( 13)〕

In recent years, although Roosevelt's Chinese exclusion policy is very strict, his attitude towards Chinese exclusion has changed. Although Roosevelt's racist remarks were full of idealism, his foreign policy after taking office was extremely realistic. He mentioned many times that we should be kind to China businessmen and students who come to the United States. [( 14)] On the one hand, it is related to the pressure of "open door" forces; on the other hand, Roosevelt wants to win over the feelings of businessmen and intellectuals in China and better protect the interests of the United States in China. His attitude is obviously different from his previous view that China people as a race should be completely excluded.

three

In the spring of 1905, due to the further development of the situation, Roosevelt's Chinese exclusion policy had to be changed. In view of the fact that the United States still rejects China seriously and refuses to sign the New Testament, on May 20th, representatives from all walks of life in Shanghai held a meeting and unanimously agreed to hold a two-month conference. If the United States still refuses to sign the New Testament, it will launch a campaign to boycott American goods in major cities and commercial ports across the country. Faced with the seriousness and urgency of the situation, various interest groups involved in China have called on Roosevelt to take measures to relax the Chinese exclusion policy, ease the dissatisfaction of China people and ensure the security of American interests in China. 16 In May, John Ford, president of the American-Asia Society, wrote to Roosevelt, saying that China would boycott American goods in August if the United States still did not sign a treaty with China to give China businessmen, students and tourists "fair treatment". Fuld warned the President that China's boycott of American goods would have serious consequences for American business, especially for the cotton industry in New England states. [( 15)] He asked the President to amend the Chinese exclusion law and re-sign an immigration treaty with China. On June 12, Fuld personally led a delegation of the American-Asian Association to visit Roosevelt. They told the President that the situation in China has seriously threatened the interests of the United States in China, and that the continued existence of the Chinese exclusion law will completely lose the "industrial and commercial interests of the United States" and the influence of the United States in the spiritual and educational fields in China will be completely ruled out. They asked the president to change his position. Secretary of the Army william taft also hoped that Roosevelt would take measures. On June 15, he gave a speech in Miami, arguing that the Chinese exclusion policy "is not only wrong in principle, unfair in behavior, but also the most inappropriate and unwise in policy." [( 17)] advocates relaxing the restrictions on China people, winning the friendship of China people and winning the "trade of 400 million China people". [( 18)] In addition, a large number of business groups, missionaries and educators wrote to Roosevelt asking him to take measures.

China's hair-trigger boycott of American goods forced Roosevelt to re-examine his Chinese exclusion policy. Although the Chinese exclusion law only prohibits Chinese workers, in fact, Chinese businessmen, international students, tourists and even officials are often subjected to all kinds of difficulties, insults and abuses when they enter the United States. The Chinese exclusion law is very harsh to implement, which is deeply hated by Chinese in the United States. In order to alleviate the anger of China people, Roosevelt took a series of measures in May and June. On May 16, Roosevelt issued an order to immigration officials, "Don't insult China gentlemen" and showed "courtesy and concern" to China people who were allowed to enter the country, which was out of "national interests" and "civilized" needs. However, workers in China must be prohibited from entering the country. [(19)] On June 14, Roosevelt issued an order to the Immigration Bureau, saying that any official who misbehaves on the issue of Chinese entry will be dismissed or "punished by other means". Roosevelt also specifically mentioned H.H.North, a San Francisco immigration official who had expelled China businessmen. Roosevelt believed that North "should be strongly condemned". (20) Before Congress passes the new Chinese Exclusion Act, restrictions on non-working Chinese must be relaxed by presidential order. /kloc-in June of 0/6, Roosevelt instructed Matkov to help draft a general order to stop the corruption of customs and immigration agencies and "prevent many of our officials from being rude to China gentry, businessmen, tourists and scholars". [(21)] On June 20th and 23rd, Roosevelt called two cabinet meetings, and finally decided that the implementation of the Chinese Exclusion Law must be relaxed, and suggested that the Chinese Exclusion Law be revised when Congress reopened. On June 24th, Roosevelt issued an order again, absolutely forbidding Chinese workers to enter the United States, but he must show "the most generous and enthusiastic courtesy" to businessmen, teachers, students, tourists and government officials, and try to avoid getting into trouble when these people enter the country. "Any government official who is impolite to the people of China will be fired immediately." In order to reduce the difficulties encountered by China people when entering the country, Roosevelt also handed over the entry visa procedures to the issuing officials in embassies and consulates in China, USA. Once China people arrive in the United States with visas issued by American embassies and consulates, they are all allowed to enter the country. If you find that the visa does not match your identity, try to avoid repatriation in the future. American visa officers will be punished for such mistakes. 〔(22)〕

Under the pressure of China's boycott of American goods, Roosevelt issued a series of executive orders in May and June, trying to improve China's entry into the United States and alleviate China's anti-American sentiment. But this does not mean that his position of rejecting China has changed fundamentally. In fact, he repeatedly stressed on various occasions that Chinese workers should be severely excluded. Because in his view, Chinese workers are ignorant, backward, uncivilized and uneducated, and they have no right to "compete with Chinese workers for food." "Cheap labor means cheap citizenship", and they don't deserve to enter the United States. [(23)] The above-mentioned measures he took were just to alleviate the restrictions and insults encountered by the so-called "exempt" Chinese when they came to the United States, and to win the favor of China gentry, businessmen and intellectuals. Although some newspapers commented that Roosevelt's order was "the most important administrative measure to solve the China problem since the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Law", [(24)] it still came too late. 1905 At the turn of spring and summer, China's nationalism was fully encouraged. China people are dissatisfied with Roosevelt's little progress, and have "suddenly awakened". Only by treating Chinese in the United States fairly and without discrimination can we end the dissatisfaction of China people. This is like Kang Youwei's comment in the United States, "We allow all beautiful women to come to China. Why don't we insist that the United States allow all able-bodied China people to enter the United States? " 〔(25)〕

Roosevelt was "kind" to Chinese in the United States, and at the same time he tried to calm the anti-American sentiment of Chinese in the United States. Roosevelt knew that Chinese Americans hated the Chinese exclusion law the most, and it was they who initiated the action of boycotting American goods and actively promoted it. Roosevelt especially wanted to change the anti-American tendency of the China Reform Association, because this group has the greatest appeal and influence among Chinese Americans. At the end of June, Roosevelt met with Kang Youwei many times and promised to "do my best for the people of China by amending the Chinese exclusion law". However, the Reform Association did not support Roosevelt because it opposed the exclusion of China people as a nation by the United States. Kang Youwei said that all China is ashamed of the Chinese exclusion policy, and boycotting American goods means "preventing American exclusion" [26]. Roosevelt's efforts to influence the Chinese community in the United States failed.

Roosevelt's improvement measures failed to prevent a full-scale boycott of American goods. He is well aware of the reasons for the boycott. By his own admission, the harsh treatment of Chinese in the United States directly led to this movement. On August 2nd, he wrote in a letter, "We treated China people in our country extremely badly, and the atrocities of mobs caused the death of China people almost the same as what happened around China people during the Boxer Rebellion", and the boycott itself was caused by "our own evil deeds and stupidity" [27]. In his annual speech to Congress on February 5, 65438, Roosevelt mentioned that China's boycott was caused by the American Chinese Exclusion Act. [(28)] Although Roosevelt realized that the reason for the arrival of goods was the responsibility of the United States, he could not tolerate the damage of the arrival of goods to the interests of the United States in China. After RENAMO, Roosevelt exerted greater diplomatic pressure on the Qing government to suppress the movement.

While putting pressure on China, Roosevelt also reviewed the Chinese exclusion policy. 10 year 10 at the beginning of October, Roosevelt called several cabinet meetings to discuss the issue of Chinese exclusion, and finally decided to continue to implement the Chinese exclusion policy based on the executive order issued by Roosevelt. However, Roosevelt tended to limit the scope of exclusion to Chinese workers, and all China people except Chinese workers were eligible to enter the United States. It can be seen that compared with Roosevelt's attitude and policy of excluding China before 1905, he has changed a lot.

In order to let non-working Chinese enter the United States, we must adjust the current Chinese exclusion law. Therefore, Roosevelt repeatedly called on Congress to amend the Chinese Exclusion Law. On October 20th, 65438/KLOC-0, Roosevelt gave a speech in Atlanta, arguing that the main reason why China boycotted American goods was the unfairness of the Chinese exclusion law. If we treat China unfairly, we can't expect China to treat me fairly. Roosevelt advocated that all China people except laborers should be allowed to enter the United States, and called on Congress to take action on the basis of "self-interest and justice". Roosevelt himself admitted: "Courtesy" to China people and improving the situation of China people entering the United States is nothing more than reducing the reasons for boycotting American goods, thus reducing the losses suffered by American interests in China. It is short-sighted to allow foreign competitors to drive us away from the huge China market. On February 5, 65438, in his annual speech to Congress, Roosevelt once again fully talked about his views on Chinese exclusion and cash on delivery. He said that China workers should not be allowed to enter the United States at any time, but in the practice of excluding China workers, "China's behavior towards the people of China is seriously unfair." He suggested that Congress amend the Chinese Exclusion Law and conclude a new immigration treaty with China, so as to "allow all China people who are not coolies to enter the United States" and "show fairness and courtesy". These classes include students, businessmen, teachers, tourists, doctors, manufacturers, bankers and so on. And enjoy the same treatment as immigrants from other countries. Roosevelt reminded legislators, "We expect, to be exact, to insist that the people of China give us justice. But if our actions are unfair, we can't expect justice. " 〔(30)〕

Roosevelt especially hoped that California lawmakers would support his new Chinese exclusion policy. To this end, he also called on California businessmen to put pressure on these congressmen. In his reply T.C.Friedlander, secretary of the San Francisco Mercantile Exchange, asking the President to take tough measures to stop the arrival movement, he pointed out that "one of the main reasons for the arrival of goods is the short-sightedness of the American government and people in dealing with the China issue here"; There is a gap between the bill and practice, which must be corrected; The most effective work for a group like you to help end the arrival of goods is to actively promote the reform of the immigration bureau and the necessary amendments to the bill. Roosevelt thought that he had made every effort to stop the movement of goods, but only when Congress amended the Chinese exclusion law to "stop the injustice and insult suffered by China people who did not belong to coolies when they came to the United States" could further action be taken. Roosevelt called on western businessmen to put pressure on their congressmen to agree to amend the current Chinese exclusion law. 〔(3 1)〕

Although Roosevelt was inclined to implement a more relaxed policy of excluding China, he was worried that China people would think that the United States had succumbed to the boycott movement in China, and he was even more worried that China people would often use boycott as a threat to achieve their goals in the future. So after the boycott, the Roosevelt administration increased the pressure on the Qing government. 1from the end of 905 to the beginning of next year, Roosevelt also planned to take military action against China [(32)]. Under the military threat of the United States, the Qing government took a series of measures to suppress the movement that came in March 1906. The movement was finally suppressed. Around this time, the US Congress once again launched a heated debate on the Chinese exclusion policy. The bill finally passed still affirmed the old Chinese exclusion policy. Roosevelt's efforts to seek Congress to improve the Chinese exclusion law were fruitless.

In response to the resistance of the people of China, Roosevelt had to improve the treatment of China people who were allowed to enter the country, and actively called on Congress to amend the Chinese Exclusion Law to soften the anti-American sentiment of the people of China. However, his great power ideology made it impossible for him to accept that China people retaliated against the American anti-China policy by boycotting American goods, nor could he tolerate the damage of this movement to American interests and international prestige in China. Therefore, in order to suppress the anti-Chinese movement, he treated China people with both hard and soft, and paid equal attention to kindness and prestige. After he strongly threatened to force the Qing government to suppress the boycott movement, he failed to get Congress to pass a slightly improved Chinese exclusion law. In fact, after 1906, Roosevelt's Chinese exclusion policy has not changed significantly, and the Immigration Bureau is still implementing a strict Chinese exclusion policy.

Throughout the evolution of Roosevelt's attitude and policy of excluding China, we can see that his behavior is restricted by many factors. He himself has always viewed the issue of immigration from the perspective of racism, and thinks it is necessary to exclude Chinese to ensure the "purity" of American race. However, after he became president, his behavior was influenced by real politics and reflected the needs of interest groups. Anti-China interest groups demand strict anti-China policies, while "open door" interest groups demand reducing restrictions on China immigrants. Roosevelt's behavior is actually the product of struggle and compromise between the two factions.