Napoléon Bonaparte, a famous French military strategist and politician in modern history, 1769 was born in a dilapidated aristocratic family in ajaccio, Corsica. From 65438 to 0779, he studied military affairs at Brehon Military Academy. 1784 Promoted to Paris Military Academy. After graduation, he was appointed as a second lieutenant officer of Vallance Artillery Corps, 16 years old. 1789, the French bourgeois revolution broke out. Napoleon sympathized with the revolution and once became a supporter of jacobins. He returned to his hometown of Corsica three times and actively carried out activities for the autonomy and freedom of Corsica. Due to the exclusion of the local pro-British and anti-French Poly Group, the family was forced to move to France. 1793 In July, Napoleon led an army to capture Toulon, the fortress of the royalist party, which was deeply appreciated by Augustus robespierre of jacobins. 1794 In June, Napoleon was appointed as Major General and Artillery Brigade Commander. After the hot month coup, jacobins 103 people were killed, and Napoleon was also implicated and arrested on August 5. After trial, he was acquitted, but he was removed from the rank of major general and the post of artillery brigade commander. Napoleon was trapped in Paris for some time. 17951On October 4th, a royalist armed rebellion took place in Paris. Governor ballas invited Napoleon to help quell the rebellion. Napoleon defeated the rebels with artillery and saved the crisis. The governor promoted Napoleon to lieutenant general and commander of the Paris garrison. Overnight, Napoleon, down and out, became a big shot in military and political circles. 1796 On March 2, Napoleon, who was only 26 years old, was appointed as the commander of the French Italian army and began his independent combat career. On March 9th, Napoleon and Josephine Beauharnais, a famous Paris socialite, got married in a hurry. Two days later, he bid farewell to his new wife and rushed to the Italian legion to take office. He commanded tens of thousands of troops to March into Italy, and fought continuously with the Austrian Army and Sardinian Army, the first anti-French Coalition, in a favorable position, and achieved a series of brilliant victories. When he triumphed in Paris from Italy, he made up his mind to be the leader of the country that unified the whole country. The rising Napoleon made the governor feel threatened, and the governor officials decided to move him away from Paris. 1April 798 12, Napoleon was appointed commander of the French Egyptian army (Oriental Army). /kloc-in may of 0/8, Napoleon sent troops to the east and made an expedition to Egypt. He hopes to realize his ideal with the help of new victories. 1On August 22nd, 799, Napoleon saw that the domestic situation had taken a turn for the worse, and the people complained that the time had come. He immediately led his cronies to leave Egypt and return to Paris. 1799165438+1October 9, Napoleon launched a successful coup in the foggy month and became the first ruling party. On June 1800, Napoleon defeated the Austrian army in marengo, forcing the second anti-French alliance to collapse. Napoleon took advantage of the short-lived peace in the European continent, vigorously governed and developed national strength, and for a time France was prosperous. 1802 In May, Napoleon became a "lifelong ruler", integrating administrative, judicial and legislative powers, paving the way for the transition to the monarchy. 1May, 80418th, Napoleon wore a yellow robe and declared himself the first emperor of France, with the title "Napoleon I". 1August 9, 805, Austria, Britain and Russia formed the third anti-French alliance. Napoleon led his army eastward and won the battles of Ulm and Austerlitz. The Russian emperor and the Austrian emperor fled in panic. Napoleon used his victory to form the "Rhine Union" in the vassal states of South Germany and China and Germany, and put it under his own protection. 1in the autumn of 806, Britain, Russia and Belgium formed the fourth anti-French alliance. 1 0/0/month/day, Prussia took the lead in declaring war on France. 14 during the day, the French army fought two beautiful battles in Jena and Olstadt at the same time, and the Pujun army was almost completely annihilated. 10 year1October 27th, the French army invaded Berlin. Heine once exaggerated: "Napoleon blew Prussia in one breath." Then, France attacked the Russian army in the East. 1on June 4th, 807, Napoleon defeated the Russian army in friedland, and the Russian emperor was forced to make peace. In order to suffocate the British Isles and strictly implement the policy of "continental blockade", Napoleon launched a war to conquer the Iberian Peninsula in 1807+00. The invasion of the French army aroused the strong resistance of the people on the island, and the French army soon fell into the quagmire of the people's war. Napoleon had to swallow the bitter fruit he planted. /kloc-at the beginning of 0/809, because of the fifth anti-French alliance against Prussia, Austria and other countries, Napoleon hastily led his troops back to China before the end of the Spanish War and invaded Austria in the East. Napoleon turned defeat into victory with an iron will, forcing Austria to cede territory for peace again. 18 10 In March, she married Princess Maria Luisa of Austria. Napoleon's empire reached its peak. However, Europe's proudest moment is also the moment when its hegemony was decisively reversed. 18 12, Napoleon assembled 500,000 troops for an expedition to Russia. He drove straight into Moscow. However, the cold climate in Russia and the anti-French struggle of local soldiers and civilians finally defeated the French army. 18 13 years, the sixth anti-French alliance in Europe was established, and Napoleon led more than 400,000 allies to participate in the war. Unexpectedly, in the battle of Leipzig, all the vassal States and small countries took the opportunity to get rid of French control, and Napoleon fell into an embattled situation. 18 14, the allied forces marched into France. On March 30th, Paris fell. On April 6, Napoleon was forced to abdicate and was exiled to the island of Elba, Italy. Bourbon restoration. However, this loser once again created a rare miracle in history. He escaped from the heavily guarded island of Elba. 1865438+On March 20th, 2005, he occupied Paris without firing a shot, regained the throne of the emperor, and established the "Hundred Days Dynasty" in history. European monarchies rallied to form the seventh anti-French Coalition. 1865438+In June 2005, the French army was completely annihilated in the Battle of Waterloo, and Napoleon abdicated for the second time. 10, exiled to St. Helena. 1821On May 5th, Napoleon died on the island at the age of 52. Four days later, people on the island held a funeral for the conqueror. In the roar of the salute, the coffin was slowly buried next to Tolbert Spring on St. Helena. In the depths of this quiet canyon, a few weeping willows are shaded by flowing water, and Haitang, taro and canna are competing to open. Napoleon, the once all-powerful, outstanding and unparalleled hero, was buried under these green leaves and flowers. 19 years later, Louis Philippe of the French July dynasty sent warships to St. Helena to retrieve Napoleon's body. 1840 12 15, the people of Paris held a grand ceremony and enthusiastically accepted this spirit. Countless people braved the cold and snow to escort the coffin to the Invalides on the banks of the Seine. Since then, Napoleon's last wish has come true. As a veteran, he was buried among the banks of the Seine and the French people he loved.

Published by Shuai Shuai on 2005-1212:17: 00 Read the full text (67) | Reply (0) | Reference Notice (0).

[Napoleon's Diary] The formation of troops in the Napoleonic era

(1) Army formations, infantry, cavalry and artillery. The basic tactical unit of the European army in the Napoleonic era was the battalion. Each battalion consists of six to eight companies, with about 500 to 1000 people. Battalion 2-3 is a regiment; The second regiment is a brigade; The second brigade is the first division. The division is a strategic force, including the synthetic nature of all arms, equipped with 8- 10 infantry battalions (5,000-9,500 men) and 2 artillery companies (12 guns). 1800, Napoleon took the legion as the strategic unit, including 2-3 infantry divisions, 1 light cavalry division (3-4 regiments) and 36-40 guns. The main arms are infantry and cavalry. Because of the different height, physical strength and temperament of people and the different specialties of horses, heavy infantry and heavy cavalry distinguish between light infantry and light cavalry. This distinction is necessary and slightly different in basic tasks. Heavy infantry is used for large-scale resolute attacks and intensive formation operations; Light infantry is suitable for small-scale combat, maneuver, vigilance and avant-garde. The main weapons of infantry are forehand guns and some rifles, mainly flintlock guns, which were later improved into firing guns. The shooting accuracy is poor, the loading is difficult, and the speed is slow, which affects the shooting speed. About five rounds are fired per minute. Its effective range for individual soldiers is 100 meters, which is effective for group targets within 200 meters, but it is not easy to hit outside 350 meters. Spears were abolished in the early18th century. Infantry is slow to load ammunition and can't move forward quickly, so it is often used to "March forward". The afterloading gun was invented later, and the French army didn't start using it until 1838. Napoleon once watched the flintlock gun in the German infantry battalion and said with emotion: "This is indeed the most unlucky weapon that can be given to soldiers." The third battalion is the reserve battalion. If the 3rd Battalion enters the war quickly, the 4th Battalion will be temporarily organized by each battalion as a reserve. At that time, there was a praetorian guard system, which was called the essence of the army. It is made up of the largest and most burly soldiers, but it is often in name only, as in Russia and Britain. The guards of Napoleon, France, did not take figure as the standard, but chose the backbone, which was indeed the essence, but other parts of the army were weakened by the absorption of outstanding elements in the army. In addition to the Royal Guard, France has similar elite troops in various military battalions, such as grenadier companies and light cavalry companies. This also complicates the tactical actions of each battalion. Other countries have similar situations. Cavalry also has the difference between heavy cavalry and light cavalry. Throughout the Middle Ages, cavalry was the main arm of all armies. During the Thirty Years' War (16 18- 1648), two-fifths to one-half of the troops were cavalry. In the "Seven Years' War" (1756- 1763) in the middle of the 8th century, cavalry still occupied an important position. Heavy cavalry mainly refers to armored cavalry. The rider has a breastplate, which is very heavy. The French breastplate weighs 22 Jin. The heavy cavalry was formerly a heavy knight in Egypt, Persia, Greece and Rome, and a gendarmerie in the Middle Ages. Heavy cavalry are clumsy in actual combat and have weak combat effectiveness. The breastplate could not resist bullets fired at close range (100 to one hundred and fifty meters), so the European army once abandoned it. Later, Napoleon was fascinated by the tradition of monarchy. In France, the armored cavalry was restored. Soon, the armies of other European countries followed suit. Dragon cavalry is a kind of cavalry that can walk and ride, which is between light riding and heavy riding. Some countries are incorporated into heavy cavalry, while others are incorporated into light cavalry. Because its flag is painted with dragon patterns, it is called dragon cavalry. Light dragoons can also fight on foot. Light cavalry can be divided into lancers, cavalry, hussars and hunting cavalry. Lancers. Some of them were equipped with armor and joined the heavy cavalry. Cavalry is the best equipped weapon, equipped with carbine, and is an elite. The hussars are light and agile, first appeared in Hungary and Poland, and were composed of nobles. Later, they traveled all over the European army. /kloc-hunting cavalry appeared in the second half of the 0/8th century, awakened by rangers, hunters and "steady cough and abuse mallets"? He is good at scattered formation operations, as well as guarding, reconnaissance and pursuit. Engels thought this distinction between cavalry was "an amazing stupidity". It is of little significance and too complicated to take the difference between light and heavy horses as the basis for dividing various types of cavalry-breastplate cavalry, dragoons, lancers, cavalry, hussars and hunting cavalry. The actual combat role of lancers and cavalry is not great. The basic combat unit of cavalry is company, which usually has 140 horses. The 3rd to 4th companies are cavalry regiments. There are cavalry divisions and cavalry regiments above the regiment level, and the number of regiments under their jurisdiction is not fixed. Napoleon also incorporated a certain number of light cavalry into infantry divisions. The artillery in the Napoleonic era developed by leaps and bounds and officially became an arms. Artillery appeared in14th century. /kloc-In the 5th century, artillery appeared on the battlefield. But they are often employed by the army and are not listed as soldiers. 1at the end of the 7th century1at the beginning of the 8th century, artillery was listed as the official establishment of the army in most countries, but it has not yet become an independent arms. Although frederick the great realized the role of artillery and thought that artillery needed to move quickly, he used Mato's field guns, but he never admitted that artillery was an "arm". As an auxiliary force, its status should be inferior to that of infantry and cavalry. Count Djibert, a French military theorist, has a similar view. The progress and reform of artillery technology have shown its great role in the war, so it has been paid more and more attention. The improvement of gunpowder performance and the scientific research achievements of Galileo and Newton have gradually improved the scientific theory of artillery. The improvement of gun rack, gun body and shells has led to the emergence of "mule-horse artillery team" in Prussia, where guns can take mules and horses over mountains and mountains. With certain maneuverability, mounted artillery was established in 1759 to support cavalry operations and was adopted by various countries. France attaches great importance to the study of artillery theory. Known as the "father of French artillery", Jean Baptist Grebauvre reformed the artillery in 1776 and developed a relatively complete artillery system, including specially trained artillery units and schools. But also improve that gun rack and the structure and organization of the gun rack, and adopted a standard system. The gun frame parts can be used together, and the heavy guns can be disassembled. All kinds of gun transport vehicles only need seven kinds of wheels and three kinds of axles. Therefore, light guns (four or six pounds of nuclear bombs, six-inch pursuit guns) are generally equipped by the army, while fortress guns use wheels, which can slide on semi-circular tracks and adjust their direction. And began to calculate the size of the gun by the caliber of the gun, not the weight of the projectile. On this basis, Napoleon improved and developed the French artillery, making it more standardized, light and flexible, enhancing its mobility and organization. Napoleon made artillery an independent unit for the first time. British artillery has always lagged behind other countries. The cannon car is towed by a single horse in a row, and the rider walks with a whip. Horses and riders are rented. Riding a gun has not been established. It was not until the artillery reform of 1800 that the same measures were taken with other countries. The ratio of the number of troops to the number of guns owned varies from country to country. Napoleon thought that two guns per thousand people were enough, and this ratio later became the norm. In addition, each gun carries about 200 rounds of ammunition, about a quarter of which are shotguns. Infantry artillery companies are generally equipped with eight guns. See the attached table for details. With the improvement of fire safety, the research on urbanization has also changed. French engineer Faubourne improved the way Turkish and Dutch troops built cities. "Overlooking" castles and towering city walls made of stone have been unable to effectively resist gunfire, and they have been replaced by "leveled" or "Fobang-style" castles. Italians have a new type of "enclosure", which was later improved. This kind of fortress was very popular in the early19th century. Its main feature is that it is usually a regular polygon with a fortress protruding from each corner, so it is also called a "multi-faceted fortress" to effectively penetrate the firepower. There is also a low-thick stone breast wall, and there is a wide ditch outside. The ditch is covered with a thick layer of soil and shells hit it. The strength has also weakened. (2) The development of the navy also developed at this time. Due to the development of colonial overseas and foreign trade, the maritime armed forces of European countries have been relatively developed. Both Spanish and British navies are in their heyday, especially Britain, which dominates the sea at this time. British warships have hundreds of guns, 98 three-plate ships and four-plate ships. 5438+0803, Britain has 30 first-line warships, supported by 86 "50 gunboats" and cruisers, plus reserve fleets. * * There are 77 warships, 49 "50 gunboats" and several cruisers, with a total tonnage of 18 14 of 800,000 tons. There are 3 17 cruisers and 6 1 1 other ships. 1803, France has 23 main warships, 25 cruisers, 17 medium cruisers and 167 ships, and 45 warships are under construction. According to the plan of France, it is planned to set up a joint fleet to deal with Britain. It is estimated that France has 130 warships, 60 Spanish warships, 20 Dutch warships and 15 Genoese warships. Actually, I've been calling for years. The plan has not been completed. By 18 15, France will have 103 warships and 55 cruisers. Among these warships, four armour plates carry 13 1 guns, three armour plates carry 1 12 guns, 100 guns, 80 guns, 74 guns (a large number) and 64 guns. Most ships are made of wood and use sails. Mainly use naval guns. Originally manufactured by the Scottish Karen Iron Company, named). This is a short gun with a large caliber. It can launch spherical solid bombs at close range, causing serious damage to the wooden parts of enemy ships. At this time, Fulton, an American, has begun to study the trial production of steam ships, but it has not yet reached the practical stage. From the perspective of naval power, Britain has an overwhelming advantage; In terms of ship structure, France and Spain have surpassed Britain, and their warships are bigger and more beautiful. (1) Flint is ignited by a spring, which ignites gunpowder and pushes out projectiles. From 1805, the hammer was used to detonate the explosive mercury and ignite the gunpowder. (2) forehand gun with iron probe projectile, shooting must stop, at the same time keep the formation neat. It's called "Goose Walk". Attached table shows the performance of artillery in Napoleonic era: caliber gunner, muzzle velocity, effective range, ammunition quantity, firing rate, artillery car, ammunition car, number of chariots and horses, millimeter of each ammunition car, multiple of meters per second, kilogram/kilogram, six-pound gun 84 18 4 16 live ammunition 600 4120. 050 1900 4 2 shotgun 600 8 1 12 pound gun 12 18 4 10 live ammunition 9001210 880. 5438+021.5150mm mortar 165 4.5 170 live ammunition 600133014501600 43

Published by Shuai Shuai on 2005-12-212:16: 00 Read the full text (16) | Reply (0) | Reference notice (0).

[Napoleon's Diary] Military Equipment and Tactics during the Napoleonic Wars

Infantry (1): Overview Infantry was the main body of the army in the Napoleonic era. Compared with other arms, infantry often suffers the most casualties, but it is often the key to victory or defeat. Infantry are usually divided into three categories: line infantry (also called fusilier); Grenadier; Light infantry. Grenadiers will be made up of the bravest and strongest soldiers. Personally, I think that "grenadiers" are heavy infantry, and grenadiers are just a name, not really "throwing bombs". Light infantry consists of "small" and "agile" soldiers. Different countries have different names for light infantry: French hunters and British riflemen. I don't understand several other languages, which probably means hunting soldiers. ) The first two types of infantry usually form a close formation, thus developing firepower. Light infantry will form a "skirmisher line", which will be used to shake the enemy's defense when attacking; In self-defense, it is used to disrupt the enemy's attack rhythm. At that time, most of the infantry were equipped with large-caliber muskets, and the principle and structure of muskets in different countries were not much different. 1740 land mode rifle imported from Britain, with a barrel length of 46 inches (1 17cm) and a caliber of 0.75 inches (19mm). After the seven-year war, the barrel was shortened to 42 inches (107cm) and the caliber remained unchanged. After the outbreak of the war with France, due to the lack of stable sources of raw materials, Britain turned to the East India Company to manufacture a large number of "Indian model" rifles. By 1797, this 39-inch (99 cm) barrel musket had become the standard equipment of the British army. The huge output not only met the needs of the British army, but also equipped the countries of the anti-French alliance. 1802, the British arms department introduced a new type of rifle, but only equipped with a small number of troops. Although the accuracy is not good, the British musket system is still very popular with the army and is called "Brownbass" by the soldiers. The "1777" musket, which is mainly equipped by the French army, has a length of 44 inches (1 12cm) and a caliber of 0.69 inches (17.5mm). The total length of the gun is 59.5 inches (15 1cm), which is slightly lighter than the British gun (about 10 lbs = =4.54kg). The trigger is reinforced, and a brass initiation pot is used. The barrel is fixed with a retaining ring, which is convenient for replacement. During the French Revolution, only the 1777 musket was slightly modified (becoming the "nine-year model"). In addition to the infantry type, there are many variants of this musket, which are used to equip cavalry. These variants are different from infantry in length and decoration, but the caliber and shooting part remain unchanged. The muskets of other participating countries are: Prussia 1782, Norhart musket (1805) and Prussian New Style (1809), but in fact, after the defeat of 1806, Prussia basically relied on British aid and prisoners to make a living. The 1770 used by the Austrian Army has made some improvements on the firing device of 1798. The equipment of Russian muskets is quite chaotic, and there are no fewer than 12 kinds of muskets. Among them, the model 18 10 of Dangtutula Arsenal has the best performance. The low hit rate was the main disadvantage of muskets at that time. Because the firing time is too long, the muzzle jitter is inevitable from pulling the trigger to igniting the charge. This sloshing and only one front sight (no rear sight) seriously affect the shooting accuracy. Black powder will leave residue in the barrel after burning, and there is no time to remove this residue in the fierce battle. In order not to interfere with shooting, the only solution is to use smaller projectiles. The clearance (clearance) between the bullet and the barrel of musket in various countries is in the range of 0.07 ~ 0. 10 inch (1.78~2.54mm). Clearance ensures smooth shooting and greatly reduces the hit rate. Pu Jun once conducted an experiment on muskets in Franco-Prussian countries. On a target (3.05× 1.83 m) with a width of 10 ft and a height of 6 ft, Pu Jun 1782 fired 100 rounds with a step of 100 (pace = 0.76 m). ; 76m) can hit 60 rounds; 200 steps and 40 rounds; There are only 25 rounds in 300 steps, and the performance of French 1777 musket is not much better. Considering the influence of battlefield environment, smoke, fear, noise and other factors on soldiers' minds, the hit rate is far below this ideal test. 500 people volley an attacking infantry column twice at a distance of 100 yards (9 1.4m), which can theoretically hit 500 to 600 rounds. However, according to the experience of the armies of various countries, playing 150 rounds on the battlefield is the best result. At that time, the theoretical effective range of the musket was 300 steps (228 meters), but actually shooting at this distance was a complete waste of ammunition. Poor reliability is another big problem. In the fierce battle, there will be many problems in the whole process of loading and launching. For example, the powder in the firing slot does not lead to the main charge; Flint used it old but forgot to replace it; Excessive deposition of muzzle residue, etc. According to statistics, in a long-term engagement, the probability of not firing is as high as 20%. There are often netizens who are puzzled by the form of fighting in the Napoleonic era and feel that the target of the attack is too great. In fact, after reading the above introduction, I think your question should have a partial answer. At that time, the firing rate of infantry was about 2-3 rounds per minute. Coupled with low hit rate and high failure rate, the firepower of a single musket can be ignored. Only by lining up in a row or column and concentrating firepower can we have a good killing effect. On the other hand, a good formation can respond to the impact of cavalry in time. (I will talk about this later, so I won't elaborate here. In Napoleon's time, soldiers of various countries usually carried 50 to 60 rounds of ammunition in their ammunition bags. A battle consumes about 20 rounds on average. In the battle of Victoria, Spain, the British army consumed a lot, with an average of 60 rounds per person, and the whole army consumed 3.5 million rounds of ammunition. However, the hit rate is surprisingly low, and every 450 rounds only cause 1 enemy casualties. Fortunately, the supply situation in Wellington was very good at that time, and the ammunition consumed was quickly replenished. In marengo, the battalion of French captain Coignet ran out of ammunition. At the critical moment, the guards who arrived in time with enough ammunition saved them. Lack of training is another important reason for the low hit rate. In most armies, the training of musket shooting is simply perfunctory. Because the forces of the skirmisher line are scattered, it is very important to improve the shooting accuracy. Nevertheless, during the Great Revolution, the French army, which emphasized skirmisher tactics, still seldom conducted targeted training, and light infantry could only improve themselves in actual combat. According to French soldiers, Napoleon had no shooting training before he became the first ruler. 1800, Bertie issued an order: French recruits must receive training in loading, gun operation, aiming and shooting, and must ensure that live ammunition is fired several times before going to the battlefield. However, in fact, there is not enough ammunition and time to ensure adequate training. The British army has done a good job in this respect, but only 30 live ammunition and 50 bullets without ammunition. What is said here is muskets, but at that time, more accurate rifles with rifling have actually appeared in the armies of various countries. The French army experimented with rifles for some time, but by 1807 Napoleon had banned rifles, and other countries had small-scale light infantry or hunters equipped with rifles. The high hit rate of rifle improves the combat effect of skirmisher line, but its main disadvantage is that it takes a long time to load and is easy to block. Considering the manufacturing cost and the time required for special training, rifles are obviously not suitable for equipping large corps like muskets. Therefore, even the British army, which is more receptive to rifles, has only two light infantry regiments equipped with rifles-60 and 95 infantry regiments. Flint is essential for muskets and rifles. Mining flint is usually carried out in wet weather. After drying, it is crushed and shaped by skilled workers. Britain produces high-quality flint not only for its own use, but also for its allies in continental Europe. Champaign and Piccadilly also produce flint. Saxony is another flint producing area in continental Europe. In contrast, Prussia lacked flint resources and had to use ineffective substitutes to get British assistance. I wonder what it is? Because of the importance of flint, soldiers basically have a spare piece, and each battalion also keeps a considerable amount of reserves. Flint is one of the items that must be checked before fighting. On the eve of the battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon personally reminded the guards: "Tomorrow, a new flint will be of great use." Another item that must be checked is ammunition. A cardboard bag contains about 65,438+050 grains (about 65,438+00g) of black powder and a lead bullet. After being made in the arsenal, each box 1000 bags will be distributed to the troops. The officers of the company are responsible for checking the soldiers' ammunition every morning. Infantry (2): Basic formation The limitation of firearms at that time made the army at that time rely heavily on formation to improve the firing effect of muskets. In the early days of the French Revolution, due to the large number of volunteers who lacked training and discipline, the traditional three-row horizontal line could be formed in defense fashion, but it was impossible to form an effective formation battle in attack. Commanders had to increase the size of the skirmisher line, and sometimes even the whole battalion of soldiers became "skirmishers". At the same time, all countries in continental Europe maintained the linear horizontal line popular in the18th century, whether attacking or defending. These countries have not reformed because France's "stragglers" tactics cannot pose a threat to their formation. Austrian generals believe that "sporadic shooting by stragglers can't shake a well-trained infantry team at all." With the continuous improvement of the training level of the French army, the role of formation has been gradually valued. There is usually a battalion column behind the skirmisher line to support it. This tactic achieved good results at that time. After Napoleon came to power, European armies also introduced the skirmisher tactics, which greatly reduced the interference effect of the French skirmisher. The task of shaking the enemy's front is more accomplished by artillery. Therefore, the skirmisher line was appropriately weakened and the attack column was greatly strengthened. In the later battles of Napoleon, the whole division was even used to form an attack column to attack the enemy's defensive positions (Waterloo was used). Comparatively speaking, the three-column linear formation in other countries is a bit thin. 1806, the Austrian army adopted an attack column similar to the French army. The Pu Jun Army of 1807 and the Russian Army of 18 10 have also carried out similar reforms. The only country that keeps the level is Britain (both offensive and defensive). The British army regulations stipulate three horizontal lines, but Wellington and other British generals often use two horizontal lines. Their reason is also simple: to maintain a wider front and give better play to firepower. Battalion was the basic tactical unit of the army at that time. Due to the lack of information from other countries, we have to take France and Britain as examples. In the early French army, a building system had eight companies. 1808, according to Napoleon's instructions, it was changed to six companies, but the number of the whole battalion did not change much, but the scale of the company increased. No matter 6 or 8 companies, they all include a grenadier company and a hunter company, and the rest are fusilier companies. According to the instructions, a battalion of the French army should have about 800 people, but most troops can't reach this number. Usually, a French battalion has about 600 ~ 700 people. In the Battle of Waterloo, the average number of French troops per battalion was about 560. The picture below shows a marching attack column of Company 6 (similar to Company 8), followed by grenadiers and hunting companies. If it is necessary to form a skirmisher line, the hunting company will be taken away, leaving only one company. Grenadier companies are not always behind. When morale is low, the elite grenadier company is behind, which can stabilize morale and prevent the troops in front from collapsing. When morale is high, throwing grenades often leads the attack in the right front of the column. Keep three rows continuously, and the row spacing is about 1 m. The interval between companies is about 8 ~ 10 meters, and the depth of the whole column is about 25 meters, which may be wider when marching. The positions of officers and noncommissioned officers have been marked on the map. (In Chinese with Photoshop, "battalion level staff officer" is probably equivalent to battalion level deputy, but the French army classified it as staff officer. The last one is also a sergeant, and I don't know how to translate it. Everyone help to have a look! Sometimes, a battalion column lacking a hunting company will have one company as the front and five companies in turn, but this kind of column is rare. A British barracks consists of 10 company, including a grenadier company and a hunting company, with about 640 officers and men. The picture below shows the general formation of the defense and attack of the British military camp-two horizontal lines. The front is about 200 meters wide. The legend of an officer is basically the same as that of the French army, and the black spot is the drummer. The British army's marching formation is also one column, with two columns for each company, and 10 company is lined up in turn. The existence of cavalry is undoubtedly a great threat to infantry. Although the expanded infantry queue can cope with the frontal cavalry impact, the weak flank and rear are extremely vulnerable to attack. The most effective way for infantry to deal with cavalry is to form a "phalanx"-an outward-facing "bayonet cluster". Forming a phalanx involves a series of complicated troop movements, so it takes some time to complete. In a complex battlefield, infantry may suffer heavy losses because they did not form a phalanx in time. During the Spanish-French war in Britain, Colborn's trip was covered by the sudden heavy rain. After the rain stopped, two French light cavalry regiments were found preparing to attack. In desperation, the three battalions did not have time to form a phalanx. As a result, in just five minutes, the three battalions suffered a devastating blow-80 officers and 1248 soldiers were killed or injured. Although phalanx can effectively deal with cavalry, it also has obvious shortcomings. First of all, the battalion front has been greatly reduced, and the original firepower cannot be exerted. If the enemy cavalry and infantry cooperate properly, they will use the temporary firepower of infantry to kill a large number of infantry in the phalanx. Secondly, a dense phalanx is an excellent target for artillery.