Napoleon, a famous French military strategist and politician in modern history, was born in ajaccio, Corsica, in 1769, a ruined aristocratic family. 1779 studied at the Academy of Military Sciences in Bristol, France. 1784 Promoted to Paris Military Academy. After graduation, he was appointed as the second lieutenant of Vallance Artillery Corps. As an official, he is only 16 years old. 1789, the French bourgeois revolution broke out, and Napoleon sympathized with the revolution and once became a disciple of jacobins. He returned to his hometown of Corsica three times and actively carried out activities for the autonomy and freedom of Corsica. Due to the rejection of the local pro-British and anti-French Poly Group, the family was forced to move to France. 1793 In July, Napoleon's army captured the royalist fortresses in Toulon, Augustus and jacobin. Robespierre appreciated it. In June 65438 +0794+654381October 65438 +04, he was appointed as a major general and an artillery brigade commander. The hot month coup, in which 103 people were beaten in jacobins, was also affected. Napoleon was arrested on August 5. After the trial, he was acquitted, but he was removed from the titles of major general and artillery brigade commander. Napoleon has been trapped in Paris. 1795101October 4th, Paris royalist armed rebellion. Ballas, the director of administrative supervision, invited Napoleon to help quell the rebellion. Napoleon's artillery smashed the rebels in one fell swoop and survived. The governor was promoted to lieutenant general Napoleon and commander of the garrison in Paris. Overnight, poor Napoleon became a famous figure in military and political circles. 1796 On March 2, Napoleon, then only 26 years old, was appointed as the military commander in chief of France and Italy, which was the beginning of his independent career. On March 9th, Napoleon's famous Paris socialite Josephine Beaumont held a wedding in a hurry. Two days later, he bid farewell to his new wife, the Italian army, who soon took office. Hundreds of thousands of troops under his command were directly driven to Italy, and a leading first anti-French Coalition, Austria and Sardinia, fought continuously and won a series of brilliant victories. Italy was at the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, and he decided to become a ship leader who dominated the world. The rise of Napoleon, the governor's government, was threatened, and the administrative supervisory officials decided to transfer him to a place far away from Paris. 12 April 1798, Napoleon was appointed commander-in-chief of the French army Egypt (Oriental Corps). On may 18, in the east, Napoleon's army went on an expedition to Egypt. He hopes to realize his dream with new victories. 1799 On August 22nd, it was time for Napoleon to see the deterioration of the national situation and people's complaints. He immediately led his cronies to leave Egypt and return to Paris. 1799165438+1October 9, Napoleon launched a successful coup in the foggy month and became the first ruling party. On June 1800, Napoleon defeated the Austrian army in marengo, forcing the second anti-French alliance to collapse. Napoleon's brief peace in the European continent and vigorous development of national strength, France, for a time, was a prosperous situation. 1802 In May, the referendum was passed, and Napoleon became a lifelong judge, paving the way for the transition of the monarchy, which included administrative, judicial and legislative powers. 1May, 80418th, Emperor Napoleon ascended the throne and declared himself the first emperor of France, with the title "Napoleon I". 1August 9, 805, Austria, Britain and Russia formed the third anti-French alliance. Napoleon led the army to the east, and the victory was in Ulm, Austerlitz, the Russian emperor and the Austrian emperor. Napoleon followed in victory in the vassal states of South Germany, China, Germany and West Germany, and put them under his own protection. 1In the autumn of 806, Britain, Russia, S&P and other countries will form the fourth anti-French alliance, and Prussia will take the lead in declaring war on France. 14, the French army of Jena and Orljenster fought two good battles at the same time, and the Prussians were almost wiped out. 181On October 27th, the French army occupied Berlin. Heine exaggerated: "Napoleon blew up Prussia in one breath." Then, the French army attacked East Russia.1On June 27th, 807, Napoleon defeated the Russian army in friedland, and the Russian emperor was forced to make peace. Suffocate the British Isles and strictly implement the "mainland blockade" policy. 1807, 10, Napoleon launched a war to conquer the Iberian Peninsula. France invaded the provocative people's island, and France soon fell into the quagmire of the people's war, unable to extricate itself under strong resistance. Napoleon had to swallow the bitter fruit he planted. /kloc-at the beginning of 0/809, S&P, Austria and other countries, the fifth anti-French alliance, Napoleon dealt with it from the end of the Spanish War, quickly led the troops back to Austria with Napoleon, and the iron turned defeat into victory, forcing Austria to cede territory and resume diplomatic relations. 18 10, she married the wife of Austrian princess Maria Luisa. Napoleon's empire reached its peak. However, at the proudest moment of European dignity, it was also the decisive moment for the reversal of its hegemonic position. In 18 12, Napoleon set 500,000 soldiers on an expedition to Russia. He let a loose shell destroy Moscow. However, the cold climate in Russia and the struggle of French civilians stationed there finally defeated the French army. 18 13 years, the sixth European anti-French alliance was established. In the 400,000 allied actions led by Napoleon, he was unexpectedly defeated in the battle of Leipzig, which gave the vassal countries a chance to get rid of French control and Napoleon fell into an embattled situation. 18 14 years, the alliance will be forced to enter the French mainland. On April 6, Napoleon was forced to abdicate and was exiled, and the Bourbon dynasty in Elba, Italy was restored. However, the loser once again created a rare miracle in history. He escaped from the heavily guarded island of Elba. 18 15 On March 20th, did he shoot at occupied Paris and return to the throne? Historically, it was called "Hundred Days Dynasty". European monarchies mobilized a large number of troops to form the seventh anti-French alliance. 18 15 In June, Napoleon abdicated for the second time after losing the French army in the Battle of Waterloo. 10, exiled to St. Helena. 182 1 On May 5th, Napoleon died on the island at the age of 52. Four days later, people on conqueror island held a funeral. With the roar of the salute, the coffin will be slowly buried in Torbett, St. Helena, next spring. In the depths of this silent canyon, begonia, taro and canna are blooming in the shade of weeping willows. Napoleon, an omnipotent and active hero, will be buried in these green leaves and flowers. 19 years later, Louis Philippe of the French July dynasty sent warships to St. Helena to pick up Napoleon's body. 1840 12 15, the people of Paris held a grand ceremony to receive the holy spirit. Countless people braved the cold and snow to escort the coffin to the shore of Invalides on the Seine. From then on, Napoleon's last wish was to realize his veteran status and lay the foundation for him to rest in peace on the banks of the Seine and among the French people he loved.

Published on 2005-12-212:17: 00 Read (67)| Reply (0)| Reference Notice (0)

[Napoleon's Diary] Military formations in the Napoleonic era

(a) The basic tactical unit of the Napoleonic army and the European army barracks. Every six to eight closed camps, about 500-1000; Three battalions are a regiment, and two regiments are strategic units, including various synthetic weapons and the itinerary of the second brigade of the first infantry division; The 8th to 8th 10 battalions (5000-9500)( 12 artillery) and 2nd artillery company (1800) are the strategic units of Napoleon's army, including 2 to 3 infantry divisions, and the 1st 1 light cavalry division (3rd and 4th regiments). The main weapon of infantry is the height of light and heavy infantry, cavalry, artillery and infantry personnel. Heavy infantry carried out large-scale resolute attacks and acted in dense formations; Infantry weapons's muzzle guns and rifles are suitable for light infantry, skirmishers, motorcycles, guards and avantgarde. Musketeers, buy improved muskets (1). Poor hit accuracy, difficult loading and unloading, slow speed, affecting the firing rate. The shooting speed is about five rounds per minute. Men's 100 meters effective range, the team's goal is 200 meters, 350 meters is not easy to play. Bayonets and spears widely used by infantry were abolished at the beginning of18th century. The slow advance speed of infantry ammunition is not fast, and there is often a "goose step (2)". The gun was invented after installation, and it was not used when loading rifles. Until 1838, the French army fired a shot at the German infantry battalion where Napoleon had been. He sighed with emotion: "This is indeed the most unfortunate soil weapon in the hands of soldiers. You can send three battalions and one regiment, the skeleton battalion of the first and second battalions, and the third battalion of the reserve battalion to participate in the war quickly. A temporary reserve camp was set up. The establishment of the guard is called the essence of the army, and it is the choice of the highest institution. It consists of the most bundles, but it is often only implied by its name, especially in Russia and Britain. The French Napoleonic Guards have no standard figure, but they are really necessary backbones. However, in other places in France that absorb outstanding elements of the army and weaken the army, except the Royal Guard, similar elite troops, such as grenadiers and squadrons, are all at the battalion level in various units, which also complicates the tactical actions of the battalion level in similar situations in other countries. The armed forces of all the main branches of other cavalry, cavalry, heavy cavalry and light cavalry, during the whole Middle Ages and the Thirty Years' War (16 18- 1648), the army generally had one-fifth to one-half of the staff cavalry in the middle of the eighteenth century, during the Seven Years' War (1756-/kl) Heavy cavalry is clumsy and ineffective. The European army, unable to bear the close-up of breastplate (1150m), once abandoned the traditional rice. After Napoleon, prestige was obsessed with the monarchy, and the French armored cavalry revived. Soon, the armies of other European countries followed suit. Dragon cavalry is a kind of Bujishuang between light cavalry and heavy cavalry. Some countries have incorporated heavy cavalry, and some countries are incorporating light cavalry. Their national flags are painted with dragons and some armor, so if they are called dragon cavalry and light cavalry, they can also fight on foot. Light cavalry, cavalry, light cavalry, hunting cavalry. The hussars were equipped with spears and swords, pistols and carbines, and were incorporated into the heavy cavalry of the Marine Corps, equipped with the best weapons. After using the carbine elite in the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland first appeared, composed of nobles, and then ended the European army. /kloc-in the first half of the 0/8th century, hunting cavalry was awakened by rangers, hunters and straight heads. Being good at fighting in scattered formations and being a guard, spying and chasing the difference between Engels and cavalry is "an amazing stupid thing." "Light and heavy cavalry division-armored cavalry, dragoons, cavalry, marines, hussars, hunting cavalry-is of little significance and too complicated. At the same time, due to the ostentation and extravagance of armored cavalry, dragoons and cavalry, the different roles of horses are not connected with cavalry combat units. Usually, there are 143 to 4 cavalry divisions and cavalry regiments, and the number of regiments under their jurisdiction is more than one cavalry regiment. Napoleon's infantry division, incorporated into the artillery of Napoleon's era, developed a certain number of light cavalry by leaps and bounds and officially became a confidant. Artillery from14th century to15th century, artillery on the battlefield, but often by the army rather than as soldiers. At the beginning of17th century and18th century, the army was formally formed in most countries, but it has not yet become an independent unit. Frederick the great realized that artillery should be necessary for fast movement, and made use of the role of horse-drawn field artillery, but he still did not admit that artillery was a "weapon", but an auxiliary state for troops after infantry and cavalry. Count Witt, a French military theorist, has a similar view. The progress and reform of artillery technology have played a great role in the war, so more and more attention has been paid to it. With the improvement of gunpowder performance and the achievements of scientific research such as Galileo and Newton, artillery theory has become very efficient. The shells installed in the artillery were improved, and the "mule gun" of Prussia turned to the mountain tunnel, which had certain maneuverability. Riding and shooting artillery was founded in 1759 to support other countries. French cavalry, the father of French artillery director Joan batiste Gribove, was called artillery theory in 1776. The research attached great importance to the reform of artillery and developed a more complete artillery system, including specially trained artillery units and schools, siege scenes, the standard system of the structure and strength of artillery weapons stationed in the garrison and the improved gun rack used for coastal defense. Light guns (four or six pounds of artillery, six-inch mortars) are generally equipped with troops, and the wheels of fortress guns are rotating. On this basis, the artillery Napoleon was calculated by adjusting the direction and caliber of the artillery on the semi-circular slide rail, not the size of heavy projectiles. Napoleon's first artillery became an independent weapon, and British artillery has lagged behind other countries. The artillery is arranged in a single row, and the jade bullwhip car is employed in your hand, and you can ride it with it. Before 1800, no one was created to drive artillery. Take the same measures to count guns according to the number and proportion of the national army. Countries with two guns per 1000 population are not standardized. In addition, each gun has about 200 bullets, and about a quarter of shotguns have eight guns in common. With the improvement of firepower, the fortified schools have also changed. French engineers improve the status of Buddha statues. The military fortress built by Turkey and Holland with stones overlooking the towering city walls is counterproductive and no longer effective. Instead, it is a fortress of "razed to the ground" or "Buddha state". Italy has a new "urn city", and with further improvement, this fortress has been popular until the beginning of19th century. Its main feature is that its shape is usually a regular polygon, which shows every corner of the so-called "multi-faceted fortress". Coming out of a fortress, in order to effectively pass through the fire, there is a wide moat outside the thick stone guardrail, which is covered with a thick layer of soil, and the power supply at the top of the shell is weakened. (2) European countries with developed navies, due to the development of overseas colonization and foreign trade, maritime armed forces. It is very popular. In Spanish and British navies, especially in Britain at this time, the most dominant British warships are equipped with guns, 98 three-plank ships, four-plank ships 0. 1803, and Britain supports the first-line warships 30 86 50 gunboats "cruisers". Together with the reserve fleet, there are 7 17 warships, 49 50 gunboats and cruisers. Total tonnage of 800,000 tons 0. 18 14 Battleship 24611,3, 1 * * There are cruisers, etc. 1 17. France is expected to have 130 warships, Spain and the Netherlands 2060 15 Genoa. In fact, the war is not over yet. By 65,438+0865,438+05, French warships 65,438+003 cruisers 55. These warships carry 13 1 guns. Most of the ships are wooden sailboats. Karen Gun (invented in 1779, originally produced by Scottish Karen Iron Company, hence its name) is a short-barrel large-caliber gun, which fires a close-range spherical solid bomb, causing serious damage to the wooden parts of the enemy. At this time, Fulton, an American, began to study and try out steam boats, but it has not yet reached the practical stage. The American and British naval forces are overwhelming, surpassing the British, French and Spanish warships in terms of ship structure, and the shape is beautiful. (1) The flint gun is the flint in the spring breeze, which hits the spark to ignite the gunpowder and launch the projectile. (2) The forehearth iron probe is full of projectiles, so it is necessary to stop shooting and keep a neat cross-team, so the speed is very slow. Known as the "Goose Step" schedule, the performance types of artillery in the Napoleonic era, the muzzle velocity of caliber gunners, firepower and heavy artillery, perfect millimeter artillery ammunition, and the ejection rate. Within the effective range of preparing vehicles to tow horses, the multiples of ammunition vehicles are 84 18 4 16 live ammunition 6,004, 129, 0 10, 50 1. 500 4 1 4008 1 shotgun 8m/SM kg fat/6 kg gun weight 90012150 880 21001800 63 ?. 6544.51706543850160010810800815801050190042 shotgun 608/.

& gt Shuai published in 2005-1212:16: 00 Read (16)| Comment (0)| Reference Notice (0)

Military Equipment and Tactical Infantry in the Napoleonic Wars (I): Overview Infantry was the main body of the army in the Napoleonic era. Compared with other weapons, infantry often bears the greatest casualties, but it is often the key to victory or defeat. Infantry are usually divided into three categories: ordinary infantry (infantry line, also known as fuxilier with flintlock) and grenadier light infantry (light infantry). Grenadiers will be the bravest and steadiest soldiers. Personally, grenadiers are "heavy infantry, grenadiers, but they are just examples, not real grenadiers". Light infantry are small and "agile" soldiers. Countries have different names for light infantry: hunter in France and rifleman in Britain (how many other languages are there? I don't know, it probably means that soldiers are hunting, too. The first two types of infantry are usually arranged near the formation, and the light infantry develops into a "skirmisher line" (skirmisher), and one's own attack shakes the enemy's defense line; Destroy one's own defense, the enemy's offensive rhythm. Then most of the infantry were equipped with large caliber rifles. The principle of national rifle construction is not much different from the standard rifle (land musket) introduced by Britain in 1740. The barrel is 46 inches long and 0.75 inches in diameter (19 mm). After 70 years' war, the barrel was shortened to 42 inches (107 cm), (19 mm). Due to the lack of a stable source of raw materials, Britain, rather than the responsible East India Company, has carried out a large number of Indian rifles (Indian rifles) 1797, which are of the same caliber. The 39-inch (99 cm) tube shotgun has become the standard equipment in Britain. Huge output, not only in Britain, but also more equipment to meet the country's anti-French alliance 1802. A new rifle was introduced into the British military department, but only a small amount of military equipment. Despite the poor accuracy, the British firearms department still welcomes large troops, and soldiers are called "Brownbeth". The French Army is equipped with 1777 rifle, with a barrel length of 44 inches (112cm), a caliber of 0.69 inches (17.5mm) and a total gun length of 59.5 inches (17.5mm). The trigger was strengthened, the brass cans (starting guns) fired, and each barrel was reserved. In order to equip the cavalry, the 1777 rifle (nine-year IX) during the French Revolution was only slightly modified. Except for the infantry, this rifle was replaced by a ring. The length of these variants is different, and the type, caliber and launching mode of decorative infantry remain unchanged. Other militant muskets include: after the defeat of Prussia, it relied heavily on British aid and seized the Norhart rifle (1805) 1782, Prussia, Prussia Novo (1809), but in fact 1806 survived. Austria has made some progress in using 1770 1798 ignition device. Russian rifles are more chaotic, equipped with 12 rifles. Tula Arsenal 18 10 has the best performance and hit rate, which is the main disadvantage of muskets. When the trigger is pulled to ignite the charge, the muzzle jitter is inevitable because the firing time is too long. Shaking and only one sight seriously affect the shooting accuracy. Black powder left by burning remains in the barrel. In the fierce battle, there is no time to get rid of it. In order not to interfere with shooting, the only solution is to use smaller projectiles. The barrel gap of national muskets is about 0.07 to 0. 10 inch (1.78-2.54mm), which ensures smooth shooting and greatly reduces the hit rate. The scope of the Prussian rifle pilot between the two countries (described in 3.05. 1.83m) Prussians 1782 100 (PACE = 0.7676M) 100 can shoot 60 rounds, 40 rounds have 200 steps, and 25 rounds have only 300 steps. As a result, the French 1777 musket is really not much better. Considering the battlefield environment, smoke, fear, noise and other factors are much lower than the hit rate of this ideal test. The infantry (9 1.4m) can attack at a distance of 100 yards twice, which can theoretically reach 500 to 600 rounds, but according to the experience of the national army, it can hit 150 rounds of muskets in 300 steps (228m) on the battlefield. In fact, the effective range of this distance is a waste of ammunition. Poor reliability is a big problem in fierce fighting. When the best result is fired, there will be many problems in the whole loading process. For example, the gunpowder in the launch box has no parameters, mainly responsible for the old flint, but forgot to replace it; Excessive deposition of muzzle residue and so on. According to statistics, in a long battle, the probability of no ignition is as high as 20%. Users often don't know how to think too much about the form of Napoleon's campaign. In fact, after reading the above explanation, I think it should be part of the answer. At that time, the firing rate of infantry was about 2-3 rounds per minute, and the failure rate was high, which made the firepower of individual muskets negligible. Only by arranging cross-team or column to concentrate fire can we have better killing effect. On the other hand, the formation may be due to the influence of cavalry. We'll talk about this later, here. ) consumes an average of about 20 rounds of combat. In Napoleon's time, soldiers in England usually carried 50 to 60 ammunition bags. In the Battle of Victoria, Spain consumed 60 rounds per capita, and the army consumed 35,000 rounds, but the hit rate was surprisingly low, with enemy casualties every 450 rounds. Fortunately, the supply situation in Wellington is very poor, and the ammunition consumption will be replenished soon. In marengo, all ammunition was used in the camp of French army captain Coignet. At the critical moment, the guards with sufficient ammunition arrived in time and rescued them. The shooting rate of lack of training is another important reason. In most armies, rifle shooting training is only perfunctory. The troops on the skirmisher line are scattered, so it is very important to improve the shooting accuracy. However, during the Great Revolution, the French army, which paid more attention to fanatics, was still very small in training, ignoring infantry and only improving the memory of their French soldiers. After Napoleon became a live-fire shooting exercise, in the first-instance judgment of 1800, Bell I Egypt issued an order that French recruits must receive several rounds of loading, gun management, aiming and shooting training on the battlefield before launching. However, facts are not enough. And ensure that there is enough training to ensure that +50 projectiles are also the same in Britain, and in this respect, but only 30 live ammunition, probably muskets, and rifling. In fact, more accurate rifles have been tried in the French rifles of the National Army for some time, but in 1807 Napoleon banned rifles, while other countries had small light infantry hunting equipment rifles with high hit rate, which increased the operational efficiency of the skirmisher line. Considering the manufacturing cost and the time required for special training, the rifles suitable for equipment are not as good as those of the large corps, and the more acceptable rifles are those equipped by two British light infantry regiments-60 and 95 infantry regiments. Flint is the basic material of musket or rifle. Flint is usually mined in wet weather, dried and crushed by skilled workers. The quality of plastic products in Britain is very good. Flint is not only for personal use, but also produced by allies in continental Europe who provide champagne and French Piccadilly. Saxony is another flinty place on the European continent. Prussia lacks flint resources and can't get assistance, but there are few effective substitutes used. I wonder what it is. ) Because of the importance of flint, soldiers are basically reserves. In the battle before each battalion, the number of reserves remained significant. On the eve of the battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon personally reminded the guards: "Tomorrow, a new flint will be of great use. In another project, the seized ammunition was equipped with a cardboard bag containing about 150 pieces of black powder and particles (about 10g). After the arsenal packs every 1000, even if the personnel are responsible for the daily morning inspection of soldiers' ammunition, the infantry troops are still rationed. (2) The restrictions on guns are basically formed, so that the army relies heavily on rifle formation shooting. In the early days of the French Revolution, due to the lack of training and discipline and a large number of volunteers, the traditional attack and defense methods of three horizontal teams could not form an effective battle, and commanders had to increase the scale of the skirmisher line, and sometimes even the whole brigade became an "outpost." At the same time, the countries in continental Europe, whether attacking or defending, still maintain the linear horizontal line that was popular in18th century. These countries did not reform because of the French "outpost war" tactics, and their formations could not pose a threat to Austrian army generals: "Sporadic shooting by stragglers could not shake a well-trained infantry array." The role of the French army has been taken seriously, leading to the continuous improvement of the training level, usually supported by the skirmisher line behind the battalion column. This tactic is a bit good. After Napoleon came to power, European countries introduced army fanatics one after another, and the interference of the French skirmisher line was reduced. The wavering artillery behind enemy lines completed the skirmish line, which weakened the attack line appropriately and greatly enhanced their activities.