When Karl Shaw was alive, Engels, the great revolutionary mentor, praised him and said, "This friend is a good capitalist and a good chemist." After Xiao's death, Engels expressed his condolences for his biography and made a comprehensive evaluation of his life. Can you get such a high evaluation by scolding Engels?
Carl, a trainee chemist, 1834 was born in a handicraft worker's family in Black Forest City, darmstadt on September 30th. Father John is a poor carpenter, and mother Ross is a simple housewife. One has nine children, and Carl is the oldest. 1850 Carl got a vocational school education in the city, but he dropped out of school at home on 1853. He likes chemistry very much, so he went to a drugstore as an apprentice. Because he was diligent and studious, he soon became a pharmacist's right-hand man. 1856, he came to a drugstore in Heidelberg as a teaching assistant of the University of Heidelberg, and the famous chemist bunsen burner scolded him and sat on the podium in bunsen burner. With Benson's superb experimental demonstration and vivid report, Xiao Lai scolded him for being more eager for the chemical industry, and this time he decided. Must be a chemist.
1859, he managed the candidate's savings alone, and was presided over by the famous chemist Justus von Liebig Giessen University. Department. This is the holy land that young chemists all over the world yearn for. Due to the lack of tuition, Xiao Lai scolded him for only dropping out of school for one semester. Fortunately, this semester, due to his efforts, the school has completed the experimental foundation, analytical chemistry, and basically mastered the chemical experimental technology through study and training. At the same time, this semester, I also listened to the process of chemical history of the famous chemical historian Copp, and initially cultivated his history of loving science. The chemical science pursued by school leavers, the unemployed and George W. Laima has no influence. Roscoe, a chemistry professor at Owens College in Manchester, England, has just hired a private laboratory assistant. When Xiao Lai scolded the news, he immediately rushed to Britain, far away from his motherland, and came to this industrial city. In England, he finally became Roscoe's experimental assistant through hard work. Here, he is very satisfied, he can continue to study chemistry courses, and more are independent chemical experiments. From then on, Xiao Laihan finally realized his long-cherished wish and entered the door of chemical research. When he was doing his own research, he quickly achieved many results.
Except 187 1, he was elected as a member of the Royal Society and became the first professor of organic chemistry at Owens College in 1874. He lived in England for 30 years until his death in 1892.
The most important contribution to the development of organic chemistry is the systematic study of aliphatic hydrocarbons. Starting from 1862, he separated from coal tar and petroleum, pentane, hexane, heptane and octane for the first time, carefully measured alkanes with boiling points and other fats with physical constants, analyzed their elemental composition, and determined their molecular weights by measuring their vapor densities. Then, he continued to study methane, ethane, propane and butane until octane was thoroughly studied, but a series of alkane derivatives, such as halides, saturated alcohols, unsaturated fatty acids and other reactions, aldehydes, ketones, esters, organic synthesis and so on, were also prepared and studied. Such a system greatly enriches the research based on aliphatic hydrocarbons. In his previous chemists, the research on individuals, the lowest alkanes and aliphatic hydrocarbons was scattered and unstable. The aliphatic hydrocarbon system initiated by Xiao can be said to contain higher hydrocarbons, and the knowledge of aliphatic hydrocarbons was originally provided by Xiao. In order to understand and master the aliphatic hydrocarbons in the knowledge system, it is not only hard but also risky for Xiao Lai to be scolded. Aliphatic hydrocarbons are still blank knowledge, and it is difficult to avoid explosion in experimental research. In this regard, Engels described Xiao Lai as follows: "At that time, he often faced the viewpoint of blood and scars. Dealing with aliphatic hydrocarbons is no joke. These people don't know about matter, they will always explode, and their hands will get many glorious scars. Just because he wears glasses, if he doesn't do it, his vision will be lost. "
1357, German chemist Keguletti put forward the theory that carbon atoms are tetravalent carbon atoms and can be connected with each other to form bonds. The basic theory of this theory, the focus of organic chemistry, chemistry and organic chemistry. However, the views and ideas of this theory were not immediately accepted by chemists, especially for carbon atoms, whether tetravalent is equivalent or not, and connecting carbon atoms. Understanding is very inconsistent. The most troublesome thing is how to apply this theory to explain the existence of a large number of organic chemical isomers. Sometimes, in order to explain isomerism, some people think that tetravalent carbon is different. Some ethane has two isomers, CH3-CH3 (methyl) and CH3 (hydrogenated ethyl), and is therefore promoted to CnH2n +2? ? Alkanes should also be similar to the isomers of these two series. Therefore, I chose this topic as the research object. During the three years from 1862 to 1864, he did a lot of experiments, and finally proved the eloquent fact that carbon atoms are tetravalent and overturned these alkane hypotheses. There are two structural series, which clearly show that it is precisely because of the different arrangement of carbon atoms equivalent to tetravalent that they show different structures from other carbon atoms, thus producing a phenomenon of isomerism. On the one hand, Xiao Laihan has played a positive role in promoting the development of chemical structure theory, and shows that Ming Xiaolema's scientific research is brave and innovative. Xiao Lai denounced the obvious homogeneity and heterogeneity. After a solid and meticulous experimental study, he found that Engels' law called it "CnH2n +2? The series of laws of boiling point hydrocarbons stipulate that the boiling point of alkanes increases gradually with the increase of carbon atoms, and the carbon atoms of straight-chain alkanes and branched alkanes are the same and more? High boiling point. This method is obviously the relationship between the organic properties of their structures, that is, the properties of organic substances are restricted by their chemical structures.
In addition, the research on Xiao Lai has also made great achievements in all aspects of fatty alcohol. He found that the general reaction of secondary alcohol to primary alcohol was small enough to blame. This reaction was later widely used in organic synthesis. 1872, in order to facilitate teaching, he personally compiled the original course of carbon compound chemistry, which was completely written in accordance with Li Shu's organic chemical structure and excellent teaching theory, and was very popular in Europe. In 1877, Xiaohe Roscoe and * * * wrote a complete chemistry course. This chemistry textbook, Encyclopedia, Volume 9, was uniformly criticized to death, and it was published from May to the 1920s. When talking about this book, Engels pointed out that "his great chemistry course, although he cooperated with Roscoe, was almost completely written to all his chemists, knowing that this book is the best book in Britain and Germany."
"happy farmhouse"
1859 autumn, shortly after the introduction, the famous revolutionary mentor Xiao Lai scolded him, and Marx and Engels soon became close friends. Xiao Cai Ma is sincere, modest, humorous and optimistic. Marx and Engels liked him very much and nicknamed him "Happy Farmer". Under this direct influence, Marx, Engels and party member began to study scientific socialism, Marx's economic theory and history, and their political consciousness improved rapidly. They soon became members of German working-class political parties-Social Democratic Party and Production International, and actively participated in the early days of the international workers' movement. He has served as a link between Marx and Engels in European countries for many times, and the leaders of European socialist parties all know how to curse. In the struggle between Marx and Engels and various opportunistic schools, Xiao Lai was scolded, but he always stood firmly on Ma Hao's side. Ma Xiaorong devoted all her energy to her career and donated most of her income after she was unmarried all her life. The party has won a high reputation for comrades who have difficulties in life. Engels spoke highly of Xiao Lai's noble temperament and said, "This is the best I really realized a long time ago." As a chemist, Xiao Lai's denunciation of differences is his conscious observation and thinking from the perspective of studying chemistry and materialist dialectics. He explained this phenomenon by the change of quantity and quality and the homologues of legal alkanes. Synthesizing protein's future from his vision is a foreseeable achievement and development trend of organic synthesis, especially his historical materialism and careful study of chemical history. He published his book in English on 1879. Making "Health and Development" from "organic chemistry" is his first attempt and an important achievement. This book was translated into French on 1885. 1889, the author published this book in Germany. The updated English version of this book was published after the death of 1894, and we can see popular books. It turns out that a little scolding also writes a general history of chemistry, but? Until his death, he had only six or seven hundred completed manuscripts. There are many new ideas in his works. It is a pity that they were not put forward because of his busy work and his early death.
Through the study of chemical history, Xiao Laihan clearly pointed out: "the development of chemical dialectics." He also understands the historical development of chemistry, concrete examples of production practice and popularization, and the interactive dependence of scientific theory and practice. When the popular empirical tradition of chemistry was influenced by German chemist Kirby's cubism on Dutch chemist Horton, Xiao Laihan immediately showed his support for cubism and clearly pointed out that the development of natural science needed a new hypothesis: to create a new theoretical thinking of hypothesis. Assuming that something may be wrong and has stood the test of practice, it will become a scientific theoretical chemist who does not manage theoretical thinking experiments, but can not become a good chemist. Ma also pointed out the importance of theoretical thinking, rather than dialectics that is regarded as dogma and still developing by existing theories. When it conflicts with the new experimental facts of the existing theory, we should first respect the facts and put forward new assumptions, which should be the limitations of the old theory.
Xiao Lai has scolded him all his life. In the past 20 years, he has paid special attention to studying this problem from a philosophical point of view and with Marxist natural science theory. He also specially offered two new courses, history, chemistry and philosophy of chemistry, to students of Owens College, welcoming them to gain wisdom and enlightenment, not knowledge. On May 30th 1873, I believe Marx and Engels, and we can know that Laima Jr. participated in discussing Engels' writing plan of Dialectics of Nature. Xiao Lai's stationery pays attention to the advantages of language, which shows that he fully agrees with Engels' view that moving objects in natural science, objects associated with moving objects and their movements are inseparable, and the dialectical relationship between objects is understood in natural science research. It can be seen that the close relationship between Xiao Lai and Marx and Engels is actually a scientific problem for Xiao Lai to scold Marx and Engels' consultants and researchers.
Although revolution and science criticized heartless lung cancer, they claimed that he had made greater contributions in his life. Xiao Malai died on June 27th, 892 at the age of 58. Engels made a special trip to attend the funeral and presented a wreath to the grave on behalf of the executive party. The teacher of Owens College and many of his students attended the funeral. Later, in order to commemorate him, Owens College established the "Karl Shawn Chemistry Laboratory" as a permanent memorial.
Lord, Pauling's? quantum chemistry
Pauling is a famous quantum chemist who has made outstanding contributions to chemistry in many fields. He has won the Nobel Prize twice (1954 Chemistry Prize and 1962 Peace Prize) and has a high international reputation.
190 1 18, Pauling was born in Portland, Oregon, USA. When I was a child, I was smart and studious. 1 1 year-old psychology professor Jeff Reiss, who had a private laboratory. He has done many interesting chemical demonstration experiments for Pauling, who loves chemistry since childhood. With such love, he embarked on the road of learning chemistry.
Did Pauling get good grades in middle school? Yes, especially chemical engineering has ranked first in his class so far. His ambition to become a chemist in chemical experiments is often difficult in the laboratory.
19 17, Pauling was admitted to Oregon Agricultural College and Department of Chemical Engineering with excellent results. He hopes to finally realize his dream by studying college chemistry. Pauling's family is poor, his father is a pharmacist, and he is just an ordinary sick mother. Family income is low and living conditions are poor. Due to financial difficulties, Pauline stayed in the university, dropped out of school for a year and earned his own tuition. After returning to school, I worked odd jobs to maintain my study life, and the members of the teaching assistant Committee of analytical chemistry laboratory also passed the experimental classes of grade one and grade four.
Pauling studied hard under difficult conditions. He is very interested in the theory of chemical bonds, and at the same time seriously studies atomic physics, mathematics, biology and other disciplines. This knowledge laid a solid foundation for Pauling's research work.
1922, Pauling graduated from university with honors, and also graduated from California Institute of Technology, where he studied under the famous chemist Noyce. Noyce specializes in physical chemistry and analytical chemistry, and his knowledge is very profound. The students are persuasive and affable, encouraging students to love chemistry and evaluating him as "very good".
Noyce told Pauling not to stay in books, but to pay attention to independent thinking and learn physical and chemical knowledge. 1923, Noyce wrote a new book called Principles of Chemistry. Before the book was published, he asked Pauling to take a holiday and did all the exercises in the book. Pauling and a festival, after all the exercises were completed, Noyce was very happy to see Pauling's work. Noyce appreciates Pauling and his introduction to many famous chemists, so he quickly entered the social environment of academia, which is very useful for Pauling's future development.
/& gt； Under the guidance of Noyce, Pauling completed the first research project to determine the crystal of pyroxene bauxite (mosz). Structure: Pauling completed the mosz of the structure by measuring a large number of data with modulated ray diffraction method, and did a good job in chemical engineering, which not only made his debut, but also enhanced his confidence in his scientific research.
Pauling's skills and teachers at California Institute of Technology were also carefully guided by Dickens tolman. Under the careful guidance of Pauling, Dickinson was proficient in radiation chemistry and crystal chemistry, and tolman was proficient in physical chemistry. He further broadened his knowledge and established a reasonable knowledge structure.
1925, excellent results of Pauling's Ph.D. in chemistry. The composition, structure and properties of chemical substances are systematically studied, and the methods of certainty and randomness are discussed. He is most interested in the structure of matter. He believes that people's in-depth understanding of material structure will help to fully understand the movement of chemistry.
Dr. Pauling,1February, 926, went to Europe, and the cable could not be used in the Philippine laboratory for a year. Then I went to work in Bohr Lab for half a year, and Schrodinger's stunned machine, Debye Lab. In these academic studies, Pauling has a very deep understanding of quantum mechanics, and he is confident to solve the chemical bond problem with a firm quantum mechanics method. Pauling has been traveling in Europe since he was a graduate student. Inviting experts is the most important thing in the world, directly facing the frontier problems of science. This is his later academic achievement, which is very important.
1927, Pauling ended his two-year study tour in Europe in Pashadi, USA, and Pashadi served as an assistant professor of theoretical chemistry. In addition to teaching the application of quantum mechanics in chemistry, he also gave academic lectures on the properties of chemical bonds in crystal chemistry. 1930, Pauling went to Europe again, studied X-ray technology in Prague laboratory, and later studied electron diffraction technology in Munich. After returning home, he went to California Institute of Technology.
Pauling explored the chemical bond theory, and the explanation of methane tetrahedron structure encountered problems. According to the traditional theory, if the antiparallel groove 22 rotates, unpaired electrons other than the unbound front ends of atoms forming an electron pair form valence bonds between atoms, and the unpaired electrons pair with another electron instead of the third electron. The theory that atomic neutrons overlap from the outer orbits of atoms, forming valence bonds, and the binding components of each other are more stable cannot explain the regular tetrahedron structure of methane.
In order to explain four key abalones with equivalent carbon atoms in 1928 and 193 1 year methane tetrahedron structure, the theoretical basis of hybrid orbital theory is that electron motion not only has particles, but also fluctuates. Waves can be superimposed. Therefore, Pauling, the carbon atom bonded by two hydrogen atoms, and the surrounding ports use sliding rails instead of the original S orbit or P orbit, but the energy distribution and direction of the two hybrid orbits, such as heteroaryl, are symmetrical and balanced. Hybrid orbital theory explains the regular tetrahedron structure of methane.
Regarding the theory of organic chemical structure, Pauling also put forward the famous "* * * vibration theory", and intuitive chemistry teaching is acceptable. Therefore, in the 1940s, this theory was popular, but in the 1960s, in the Soviet Union, as a representative of a totalitarian country, the chemist's psychology was distorted. They don't know what is scientific freedom, and the storm has greatly criticized the theory.
Pauling creatively put forward some new concepts in the study of quantum chemistry and other chemical theories. For example, the large-scale application of concepts such as valence radius, metal radius and electronegativity is of great significance to the development of modern chemistry and condensed matter physics.
In 1932, Pauling predicted that inert gases could react with other elements and compounds to form compounds. The outermost layer of inert gas atoms is filled with eight electrons, forming a stable shell, which cannot be combined with other atomic compounds by conventional theory. However, Pauling's quantum chemistry believes that heavier inert gas atoms may form compounds with those elements that are particularly easy to accept electrons. This prediction was confirmed in 1962.
Pauling also studied biochemistry. He is actually one of the founders of molecular biology. He spent a lot of time studying the molecular structure of biological macromolecules, especially protein. In the early 1940s, he began to study the polypeptide chain of amino acids, which can form two kinds of spirochetes, one is spirochete and the other is joint-stock company-spirochete. After research, he further pointed out that the coil maintains its shape by hydrogen bonds, and it is the length of the spiral winding of peptide bonds, because hydrogen atoms on some amino acid long chains form hydrogen bonds. Protein's spirochete, an important form of secondary structure, is confirmed by the crystal diffraction pattern, which lays a theoretical foundation for the spatial conformation of protein. Because of these studies, Pauling won the 1954 Nobel Prize in chemistry.
From 65438 to 0954, Pauling began to study the structure and function of the molecular basis of brain, anesthesia and spirit. He believes that understanding the molecular basis of mental illness is helpful to the treatment of mental illness, thus bringing good news to mental patients. Pauling was the first person to put forward the concept of "molecular disease". Through research, he found that sickle cell anemia is a molecular disease, including the determination of hemoglobin molecular mutation and genetic abnormality. That is, in the number of amino acid molecules of hemoglobin, if a glutamic acid molecule is replaced by valine, the hemoglobin molecule will be deformed, leading to sickle anemia. Pauling concluded through research that sickle cell anemia is a molecular disease. He also studied molecular medicine and wrote a paper on Plastic Molecular Psychiatry, pointing out that the research of molecular medicine and the memory and consciousness of solving puzzles are of decisive significance.
Pauling has extensive knowledge and interests. His extensive research subjects are at the forefront of natural science. He has been engaged in paleontology and genetics for a long time, hoping that this research will reveal the mystery of the origin of life. Did he describe the idea put forward by 1965? Nuclear model, the model he proposed has many unique functions.
Pauling resolutely opposes the scientific and technological achievements of war, especially nuclear war. He pointed out: "Great changes have taken place in the scientific community, especially in the past century. We have also improved our knowledge, provided the possibility of eliminating poverty and hunger, provided a significant reduction in the possibility caused by painful diseases, and provided the effective use of possible resources for the benefit of mankind. " He believes that nuclear war may destroy the earth and mankind, and he calls on scientists to devote themselves to the peace movement. Pauling devoted a lot of time to preventing war and maintaining peace. His efforts for the cause of peace were made by American conservative forces. In the early 1950s, the United States pursued McCarthyism and told him that it had passed the strict examination. There is no doubt that he is a general who restricts him from giving lectures abroad and interferes with his personal freedom. Pauling 1954 won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and the US government was forced to lift the ban on him going abroad.
1955, Pauling and world-famous scientists Einstein, Russell and Aurio Curie were born and signed a declaration: calling on scientists to oppose the development of weapons of mass destruction, war and peace. 1957 in may, Pauling drafted the declaration of scientists against nuclear experiments, which was signed by more than 2,000 American scientists in two weeks and 1 1000 scientists from 49 countries in just a few months. 1958, Pauline claimed that the nuclear test was conducted by UN Secretary-General Dag? LD, a petition of the United Nations, wrote a book "Stop the War" in the same year, which provided a lot of information about the main threat of nuclear weapons.
Founded in 1959, Pauling and Russell America's "No.1" opposes peaceful war propaganda every month. In August of the same year, he attended the conference on banning atomic bombs and hydrogen bombs held in Hiroshima, Japan. Pauling was awarded the 1962 Nobel Peace Prize for his contribution to the cause of peace. His theme is "Science and Peace". In his acceptance speech, he pointed out: "In this new era of world history, world problems cannot be used to solve such disputes and violence, but are solved according to all fairness, all countries are equal, and according to world laws." Finally, he appealed: "We should gradually establish a fair and reasonable world economy, politics and society, and all mankind should establish a kind of human wisdom and world culture."
Pauling was a great scientist and fighter for peace, and his influence spread all over the world. Rutherford
Nelson was born in New Zealand 187 1 on August 30th, and graduated from New Zealand University and Cambridge University. Professor of Physics at Seoul National University, from 1898 to Canada for 9 years, during which his research was very radioactive. 193 1 year 1907 was appointed professor of physics at Manchester university in England, and radiochemistry was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in chemistry. 19 19 was hired as a professor at Cambridge university and served as the director of Cavendish laboratory. The king's crown was awarded to his master. 1937 10 died in June 19.
It broke physics and shocked the scientific community at the end of 19 century. "Three major discoveries: 1895, German physicist Roentgen discovered X-rays, and in the same year, French physicist Bekkerel Seoul discovered natural radioactivity; 1897, 1859- 1940), the British physicist Thomson discovered the electron. These great discoveries inspired Rutherford's determination to study the atomic structure deeply.
1899, Rutherford sent out a strong magnetic field to act on the laser line. He found that light can be divided into three parts. The positively charged part is called small deflection amplitude and large deflection amplitude, the negatively charged part is called beta ray, and the third part has no deflection in the magnetic field and strong penetration, so it is called R ray.
1903, Rutherford confirmed that X-ray is a positive ion current (helium nucleus) with the same helium mass, and β-ray is a negatively charged electron current. Rutherford, rays are also called particles. His further experiments proved that the rays coated with zinc sulfide will flash in battle. So the particle scintillation mirror in his car can observe this phenomenon.
Rutherford's further study on the penetrating power of oral rays found that most particles can penetrate the thin metal foil, and these particles swagger like nobody's business in the metal foil. This phenomenon shows that the atoms in the solid are not dense and closely arranged, and there are many gaps between particles, which can pass through the metal foil without changing direction.
The results show that there are a few particles in the metal foil, as if something is squeezed and a certain deflection trajectory is made. A single particle, if it is hard in front, will rebound completely. The phenomenon that the above particles pass the metal foil experiment (this experiment is called particle scattering experiment) is that Rutherford's idea that atoms must have hard cores with positive charges. When the particle meets the nucleus, it will bounce back, and the hit side will change direction and deflect at a certain angle, occupying a small space with the nucleus, so most particles can still pass through. Based on this assumption, the radius of the nucleus is calculated to be about 3× 10- 12 cm, while the radius of the atom is 1.6× 10-8 cm.
19 1 1 year, Rutherford's "The Universe is Similar to the Universe" inspired the analogy between the solar system and the atomic structure, and put forward the atomic model. In his view, this is like an atom in a small solar energy system. Each atom has a very small nucleus with a diameter of 10- 12 cm. Excluding the total mass of atoms whose nuclei are almost completely concentrated and the electrons of a positively charged nuclear unit rotating around the nucleus, these atoms are neutral under normal circumstances.
Rutherford discovered the nucleus and further carried out scattering experiments with various metal particles. Different metal particles have stronger scattering ability, which proves that the nuclear region has more positive charges and thus greater repulsion. 19 13 years, under the guidance of Rutherford, Mosley, a student and assistant of Rutherford, proved that the nuclear charges of various elements are completely equal to their atomic numbers.