Introduction: Confucianism is the authentic thought of our country, and it also plays a certain role in restricting the monarch’s rule of the country. Let us learn about it together!
Generally speaking, Han From Emperor Wu to the end of the Qing Dynasty, Confucian values ??had moral supremacy and ideological exclusivity in Chinese society, and recognition of them was the basis for any regime to gain the legitimacy of its rule. As the basic political ethics of feudal society, the natural extension of Confucian ethics and its values ??actually became a moral force that complemented the system and restrained the emperor.
Ethics of filial piety
In the Confucian ethics represented by "monarch, minister, father and son", if "monarch and minister" can guarantee the supremacy of imperial power, then "father and son" actually embodies it. The connotation of "filial piety" is an extension of the value of "monarch and minister", which is an important value basis for restricting imperial power.
For the emperor, this kind of "filial piety" is reflected in the emperor's filial piety to the emperor (of course, in Chinese history, the emperor actually existed for a short time), the queen mother, etc. At many times in history, although there was a tradition that the harem was not allowed to interfere in politics, when some issues continued to be controversial and unresolved, or the emperor's behavior was obviously inconsistent with the facts, political ethics, and traditional values, especially when it came to the selection of concubines and the establishment of a concubine. When a queen or prince abolishes his throne, the courtiers will often use the power of the queen mother to restrain the emperor. The reason why the Queen Mother was able to make the stubborn emperor change his opinion and adopt the suggestions of the courtiers? In other words, the reason why the Queen Mother had such a power to change the emperor's mind was that the moral power of "filial piety" was at work. Regardless of whether the Queen Mother is the emperor's biological mother or not, the Queen Mother's title is the highest moral authority. If the emperor himself cannot respect and obey the Queen Mother, how can he obey the hearts of the world. Therefore, Confucian filial piety culture and value norms have become a kind of institutional force, with the image of justice, potentially and powerfully stabilizing court ethics and Xiaoqiang order.
Books of Sages
Important classics of Confucianism, especially the words, sentences and opinions in "Shangshu", "The Analects" and "Li" of Zhou, as well as the words and deeds of sages and honest officials recorded , in many cases played a supplementary role in the Code of Laws, restricting the emperor's words and deeds that violated political ethics and broke through the norms and customs. "The Rites of Zhou" or its spirit, in fact, became the "universal constitution" of all dynasties. That is to say, those who have a country must learn from the Spring and Autumn Period. If you do not learn from the Spring and Autumn Period, you will not be able to see the dangers in the front, rear and side, and you will not know the state of the country. Da Bing, the king's important responsibility? ("Spring and Autumn Fanlu? Yu Xu XVII"). Ministers are all familiar with this method, and they often use it at their fingertips, which often plays a great role in persuading and restricting the emperor. Shu Fen, who was proficient in "Li" of Zhou in the Ming Dynasty, once petitioned Emperor Wuzong of the Ming Dynasty to object to the emperor's decision to stop the military guards along the road on the pretext of visiting the mountains and mausoleums just a month after the death of Empress Xiaozhen. Staying in seclusion? ("History of the Ming Dynasty" Volume 179 "Shu Fen Biography"), this advice is obviously based on the basic Confucian ethics of filial piety. Three years of mourning for my husband is a general mourning for the whole world, and I also have three years of love for you. Its parents ("The Analects of Confucius") are its basis. In the Confucian value coordinate, the emperor is no exception.
Ancestral Instructions
?The way of the Spring and Autumn Period is to follow the laws of heaven and the ancients. ?("Spring and Autumn Blossoms? The First King of Chuzhuang") The ancestral precepts can work, and the spirit behind them is still Confucian family ethics and values, which is a natural extension of the idea of ??filial piety. Confucianism emphasizes being cautious in pursuing the past, so the words and deeds of the deceased emperors are often examples for future generations. If future generations openly overturn or violate the ancestral precepts or edicts of the late emperors, it is not only unfilial, but their political behavior is also immoral and even illegal. Leave a reputation for unfilial piety to political opponents and future generations. The system without a prime minister left by Zhu Yuanzhang in the Ming Dynasty was "forever customized" for generations to come. It was an extra-legal regulation and became the norm for his successors. Although its shortcomings are becoming increasingly apparent, they cannot be overturned. For such ancestral precepts of the late emperors, in the end they can only be solved by reconciling, repairing or concealing them. Historically, unless conflicts have intensified or there is no way out, it is difficult for future generations of emperors to change the last words of the emperor, the ancestral precepts, and the ancestral precepts.
Historical positioning
After the "Spring and Autumn" is completed, the rebellious ministers and traitors will be afraid ("Mencius: Teng Wen Gong"). In Confucian political ethics, historical positioning is an important moral weapon and value coordinate, so leaving a name in history has also become an important force restricting imperial power. ?The good history of ancient times is not hidden in calligraphy. ?("Zuo Zhuan? The Second Year of Xuan Gong") Those who wrote history either recorded events and commented on them, or recorded events without evaluating them. Although there would be Spring and Autumn writing styles, and although some content would still be modified and beautified, whether the emperor was dim or bright, Whether or not one listens to advice and accepts advice may leave clues in daily records and real records, so there is a certain deterrent to the emperor's willful words and deeds. The unofficial history notes of literati were also a moral sword for emperors. Leaving a name in history and finding a noble historical position for oneself are what emperors attach great importance to. Most emperors are afraid of the historical position of a "faint king". Even if it was an issue that did not involve royal power itself, the emperor had to follow it.
Previous dynasty practices
Chinese civilization attaches great importance to history, learning from history and using the past for the present.
The formation of various official histories, a large number of unofficial histories, "Tongjian", "Tongdian", "Huiyao" and other works also mostly had this motive. Therefore, when the monarch and his ministers discuss some matters but fail to make a decision or it is difficult to decide, or when the emperor's decision-making is not in line with the wishes of the ministers or does not meet the current affairs, ministers who are well-read in classics and history will often think of and quote historical events and previous dynasties' handling of similar matters. practices for reference or direct imitation. The affairs of the Three Emperors and Five Emperors, King Wen and Duke of Zhou, and the Ming Kings of the previous dynasties can be used skillfully by both emperors and ministers. Ministers can also use it to make suggestions and advise emperors. As long as it does not violate laws and regulations or Confucian ethics, it is morally reasonable and necessary to learn from or adopt the practices of previous dynasties. The successful practices of the previous dynasty, especially the words and deeds of the previous dynasty’s wise rulers, have positive guiding significance in dealing with similar problems. It is sometimes extremely effective to draw on the power of history and how previous emperors, especially accomplished emperors, handled similar matters to express opinions, restrict emperors, or influence court decisions. For example, in the 20th year of Zhenguan in the Tang Dynasty (646), Taizong set up a separate courtyard beside the dormitory hall so that the prince could live there and never go to the East Palace. At that time, Chu Suiliang wrote a letter to advise Taizong, and asked Taizong to visit the Yin and Zhou Dynasties in the distance and Zunhan and Han Dynasty in the near future. Wei Wei's move ("Old Tang Book" Volume 80 "Biography of Chu Suiliang"). Later Taizong followed.
After the death of Emperor Wuzong of the Ming Dynasty, because he had no children, the great scholar Yang Tinghe issued a posthumous edict to welcome the son of Emperor Wuzong's uncle, King Xingxian, to the throne as Emperor Shizong of the Ming Dynasty. Then Sejong faced a "big ritual" problem of how to honor Xiaozong, Wuzong and his biological parents. The ministers cited their own evidence, some cited the cases of Emperor Ai of the Han Dynasty and Emperor Yingzong of the Song Dynasty as evidence, some cited the case of Emperor Wen who succeeded his brother, and Emperor Xuan used the case of his brother and grandson to make suggestions ("Twenty-two Historical Notes", Vol. Thirty-one "History of the Ming Dynasty? Discussing Dali"). In the Ming Dynasty, Shu Fen went to Emperor Wuzong to oppose "excessive wandering". One of his arguments was "the importance of thousands of chariots since ancient times" and "why ancient emperors went hunting?" ("History of the Ming Dynasty" Volume 179 "Shu Fen" Fen Biography").
Influence of public opinion
In many cases, public opinion will also put a certain amount of pressure on the emperor. That is to say, if there is a way in the world, the government will not be controlled by the officials; if there is a way in the world, the common people will not discuss it ("The Analects of Confucius"). This is especially true for those emperors who are accomplished or have ideals. Of course, the public opinion in the feudal era was mainly the opinion of passers-by or the opinions of common people. The formation of public opinion was still based on the Confucian ideas of family, country and world, and the idea of ??a wise king and an honest minister. Because those public opinions with the nature of rumors may eventually undermine the legitimacy of the emperor, be used by opponents or political enemies, cause literati to add jealousy to their unofficial history notes, cause courtiers to become officials to express their ambitions or protest, cause social unrest and even cause Social unrest or political instability, so ministers will also advise the emperor to avoid public opinion pressure to prevent bad public opinion. Emperors are often afraid of possible public opinion pressure, and sometimes change their decisions, etc. This is not uncommon in history.
Of course, there are also people who don’t care about public opinion. In the sixth year of Yonghui of the Tang Dynasty (655), Emperor Gaozong deposed the Queen Wang family and established the Zhaoyi Wu family as the queen. At that time, Han Yuan wrote: "The Queen was married by the late emperor when your Majesty was in Lu Mansion. She has never done anything wrong now. If she wants to depose her, all the world will see her." Gentlemen, who is not wary of this? Moreover, the country has repeatedly abolished and established, which is not a long-term strategy. May your Majesty have a great plan for the country, and you will not be fooled by your ministers and will not pay attention to it. ? ("Old Tang Book" Volume 80 "Han Yuan Biography") However, Gaozong not only did not adopt this suggestion, but he was not afraid of the vigilance of "people from all over the world". After Han Yuan defended Chu Suiliang, he also lured his disciples to go there and the Yin Kingdom was destroyed. Zhang Hua survived and the discipline was not disturbed. Not only did he fail, but he was moved to the left to be the governor of Zhenzhou.
Natural warning
?Heaven and earth are the foundation of all things and the origin of ancestors. ? ("Spring and Autumn Fanlu? Guande No. 33") Although Confucianism opposes strange forces and chaos, due to the influence of the idea of ??the unity of heaven and man or the induction of heaven and man, there is still awe of gods and nature in its political culture heart, and integrate this spirit of awe into political ethics. On the one hand, it has the natural position of "What can the sky say?", and on the other hand, it believes that the king's government is all about "following the king and following the sky" ("Spring and Autumn Fanlu? Jade Cup No. 2"). Therefore, the anomalies in nature, such as Earthquakes and landslides, rivers drying up, and comets appearing in the east are more likely to be attached to ethics by ministers, literati, and magicians, etc., in order to draw out nature's attitude towards worldly affairs and warn the emperor. This is especially true in the dynasties before the Middle Ages.
Of course, the above-mentioned powers are not always used independently, but are often used in combination. For example, Shufen in the Ming Dynasty wrote a letter about the marriage of Empress Xiaozhen to Maolingbi and her departure from Chang'an. :? Empress Xiaozhen served as a companion to Maoling, which has never been said to be unethical. According to the ancestral system, after the burial to welcome the master, one must enter the main entrance. Yesterday, the Lord of Xiaozhen, His Majesty Gu Cong drove in through the side door. The next day, the historian wrote: "In the sixth month, when I was ugly, I drove to the mountain mausoleum to welcome the Queen Xiaozhen and Chun into the Chang'an Gate." How can it be explained to future generations of the world? Yesterday, on the eve of the temple, there were strong winds, thunder and heavy rain. The spirits of the holy ancestors and the Xiaozhen Queen were sent to warn Your Majesty. Your Majesty should issue an edict immediately, both at home and abroad, to show that you have corrected your mistakes. ? ("History of the Ming Dynasty" Volume 179 "Shu Fen Biography") This short letter uses ethics and justice (unheard of immorality, correction of mistakes), ancestral customs, historical positioning (no correct ending), social Public opinion (the world's future generations), natural warnings and other forces came to persuade Ming Wuzong.
To put it simply, there are two types of power that restrict the emperor, one is the power of ethics, and the other is the power of institutions and rules. The system is also formed and maintained based on ethics, so in the final analysis, one of the most powerful forces restricting the emperor is Confucian political ethics.
In addition, after the Eastern Han Dynasty, with the development of Buddhism, in individual emperors or in individual periods, some Buddhist views and theories would also enter the discourse system of courtiers and serve as arguments to demonstrate their own views. The basis of legitimacy and morality, this was more obvious in the Southern and Northern Dynasties. Although cases such as karma and retribution will be used as evidence for their respective views, this cannot shake the solutions to similar problems and their value coordinates based on Confucian values.
Of course, this does not mean that the emperor will necessarily be subject to these constraints. For some emperors who were individual, strong, mediocre or self-reliant on their wisdom, these constraints often did not fully work on specific matters, and those who made suggestions would be repeatedly convicted or even lose their lives. This is the case with the "Great Etiquette Discussion" during the reign of Emperor Shizong of the Ming Dynasty mentioned above. Emperor Shizong responded to suggestions that were not to his liking by saying "Three Ups and Three Downs", and even punished dozens of people with a stick. However, for proposals that did not suit his liking, he would immediately adopt and implement them. At this time, ethics, conventions, etc. have lost their restrictive significance. This is because, fundamentally, all moral constraints on the emperor are subordinate to and serve the feudal imperial autocracy.