National Art: The Contribution of Rome
Since the rediscovery and appreciation of ancient Greek art began in the17th century, Roman art has suffered a certain reputation crisis. When art critics also realized that many of the best Roman works were actually replicas, or at least inspired by early and often lost Greek originals, the appreciation of Roman art, which flourished with everything in medieval and Renaissance Rome, began to weaken. Another problem of Roman art is the definition of what it is. Different from Greek art, the vast geography of the Roman Empire produced very diverse artistic methods according to different places. Although Rome has been the focus for a long time, several important art production centers have followed their own specific trends and tastes, especially in Alexandria, Antioch and Athens. Therefore, some critics even think that there is no so-called "Roman" art.
The ancient city of Pompeii, in particular, provides a rare insight into the use, combination and appreciation of Roman art.
Recently, a more balanced view of Roman art and the success of archaeology have provided a broader vision, ensuring that Roman art is re-evaluated and its overall contribution to western art is more recognized. Even those who think that classical Greek art is the pinnacle of western artistic achievements, or that the Romans only combined the essence of Greek and Etruscan art, have to admit that Roman art is nothing if it is not compromised. Inheriting Alexander the Great's conquest of the Greek world, the empire covers extremely diverse cultures and people, their own appreciation of the past, and their clear ideas on the best way to commemorate events and people. The Romans created various forms of art. Seal cutting, jewelry, glassware, mosaics, pottery, murals, statues, memorial buildings, and even stones and coins were used to beautify the Roman world and convey aesthetic significance from military strength to fashion.
In order to gain public appreciation for the works of art plundered from conquered cities, Rome hired foreign artists, and the whole empire established art schools, developed technology and established studios everywhere. This is the demand for works of art, and the standardized and mass-produced product lines have filled the empire with art. This is another factor favored by Rome, namely the absolute number of surviving works of art. In particular, sites like Pompeii provide rare insights on how to use and combine Roman works of art to enrich citizens' daily lives. Art itself has become more personalized, and the number of private art sponsors has greatly increased, rather than national sponsors. This is clearer than creating vivid personal portraits in paintings and sculptures. Different from other civilizations before, art is accepted not only by the richest people, but also by the middle and lower classes.
Main art forms
Roman sculpture
Roman sculpture combines the idealization and perfection of early classical Greek sculpture with a greater desire for realism, and also integrates the popular style in oriental art. Roman sculptors also preserved valuable works for future generations through their popular replicas of early Greek masterpieces, otherwise these works would completely disappear into world art.
Romans like bronze and marble best because they are the best works. However, due to the high demand for metal recycling, most of the surviving examples of Roman sculptures are marble. The taste of the Romans for Greek and Greek sculptures meant that once the supply of the original works was exhausted, the sculptor had to make replicas, and the quality of these replicas might vary depending on the sculptor's skills. In fact, there is a school in Athens and Rome itself dedicated to copying the famous Greek original works. Roman sculptors also made miniature copies of Greek originals, usually made of bronze, which were collected by art lovers and displayed in cabinets at home.
Private portraits sometimes show the subject's aging, wrinkles, scars or relaxation; In short, these portraits tell the truth.
However, Roman sculptures did begin to look for new artistic expressions, far from their Etruscan and Greek roots. By the middle of 1 century, Roman artists began to seek to capture and create the optical effects of light and shadow, so as to obtain greater realism. Realism in Roman portrait sculpture and funeral art probably developed from the tradition of preserving realistic wax masks of deceased family members in ancestors' homes. When it comes to stones, we have many examples of private portraits and busts. Sometimes their themes are old, wrinkled, scarred or slack. In short, these portraits tell the truth. In ancient times, even impressionist painters used light and abstract formal techniques. Sculpture has also become more memorable, because the huge and extraordinary statues of emperors, gods and heroes, such as the giant bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius, are now on horseback in the Bitolli Museum in Rome. By the end of the empire, the sculptures of figures were often out of proportion, especially the heads were enlarged, and the figures were often flatter and presented from the front, showing the influence of oriental art.
Roman architecture and sculptures on the altar may be merely decorative, or they may have more political purposes. For example, the architectural sculpture on the Arc de Triomphe recorded the key campaign activities in detail, which strengthened the information that the emperor was the agent of the known world victory and civilization. A typical example is the Arc de Triomphe in Rome (about 3 15 AD), which also shows that the defeated and enslaved "barbarians" imposed the superior information of Rome on others. This depiction of real people and specific historical figures in architectural sculptures is in sharp contrast with Greek sculptures, which usually show great military victories in the form of metaphors. Altars used in Greek mythology, such as Amazon and Centaur, such as the Parthenon, can also be used to show important people in a favorable way. The most famous altar is Ara Pacis (completed in 9 BC) in Augustus, Rome, which is a large brick and stone depicting the audience and participants of religion. It seems that these characters are captured in an instant, just like photos, a child wearing a robe, Augustus' sister telling two chattering people to keep silent and so on.
Roman fresco
The interiors of all described Roman buildings are usually luxuriously decorated with bold colors and designs. Throughout the Roman world in BC 1 century, murals, murals and the use of gypsum to create relief effects were widely used in public buildings, private houses, temples, tombs and even military buildings. Designs can range from complex realistic details to highly impressionist renderings, usually covering all available wall spaces, including ceilings.
Roman mural painters (or perhaps their clients) prefer natural earth tones, such as crimson, yellow and brown. Blue and black pigments are also popular in simpler designs, but evidence from Pompeii paint shops shows that there are many colors to choose from. Themes may include portraits, from scene myths, architectural fan -l "visual paintings, plants, animals, and even the whole garden, landscape and urban landscape to create a spectacular 360-degree panorama, which transports the audience from a small room to the imagination of infinite world painters. A prominent example is the Livia residence on the Palatini Hill in Rome in BC 1 century, which includes a 360-degree panoramic view of the Impressionist Garden. The scene runs around a room, completely ignoring the corners. Another brilliant example is the private villa in 1 century, which is called the house of Witty in Pompeii.
With the development of art forms, large-scale single scenes showing surreal characters are becoming more and more common. By the 3rd century AD, one of the best sources of murals came from the Christian catacombs, where the scenes came from the Old Testament and the New Testament.
Roman mosaic
Roman mosaic is the same feature of private houses and public buildings throughout the empire from Africa to Antioch. Mosaic, also known as opus tesselatum, is made of small squares of marble, tiles, glass, pottery, stones or shells in black, white and color. Usually, the size of each work is between 0.5 and 1.5 cm, but fine details, especially those in the central panel (logo), are usually presented by smaller works with the size of 1 mm, and the design uses a wide range of colors and color grouting to match the surrounding inlays. This special type of mosaic uses complex colors and shadows to create a picturesque effect. It is called a worm, and one of the greatest craftsmen is Solus of Pegmont (BC 150- 100). His works, especially his mosaic of drinking pigeons, were copied in large quantities after centuries.
Popular themes include myths, gladiator competitions, sports, agriculture, hunting, food, animal and plant scenes, and sometimes they even capture the Romans with detailed and realistic portraits. One of the most famous Roman mosaics today is the house of the god of agriculture and animal husbandry from Pompeii, which depicts Alexander the Great riding Bucephalus in his chariot facing Darius in World War III. Not only the floor, but also the vault, columns and fountains are decorated with mosaic patterns.
Roman mosaic artists developed their own styles, and the whole empire formed production schools and cultivated their own special preferences-large hunting scenes and perspective attempts in African provinces, impressionist vegetation and foreground observers in Antiamasek, or, for example, Europeans' preference for graphic panels. The dominant (but not the only) Roman style in Italy itself only used black and white mosaics, which lasted until the 3rd century A.D., and was most commonly used to express ocean patterns, especially when used in Roman baths. With the passage of time, mosaics have become more and more realistic in depicting characters, and accurate and detailed portraits have become more and more common. At the same time, in the eastern part of the empire, especially Antioch, the spread of mosaics was seen in the 4th century. These mosaics used two-dimensional and repetitive patterns to create a "carpet" effect, which had a great influence on later Christian churches and Judaism. A synagogue.
Small art
The small art in ancient Rome is extensive and diverse, which in many cases shows the Romans' love for fine-processed precious materials, details and ordinary miniature design. They include all kinds of jewels, busts of small gold, mirrors, cups, plates, figurines and other silverware, gemstone cutting and carving, agate relief, seals, utensils and cut glass, inlays, gold-plated or enameled bronze decorative utensils, carved and carved ivory, beautifully decorated pottery, decorative boards for furniture decoration, elements of military uniforms and weapons, medals, coins, terracotta oil lamps, embroidered Tyrion purple cloth and pictures. Decorative themes include royalty, private, myth, nature and standard patterns, such as geometric shapes, mouse leaves, vines, twists and turns, rosettes and Nazi party emblem. Works are usually signed by craftsmen, who may be foreigners or Romans.
Those Romans who could afford it especially appreciated and collected silverware and carved gems. There is no doubt that leaving them at home will be seen by admiring tourists and used as conversation content. The Romans' love for intricate tiny carvings on precious stones is contrary to the traditional view that Roman art pays attention to all huge and bulky things. The signet ring is a symbol of family pride and an important signature method used by Yin Zhangshi. Like a gem, it is carved with a small diamond or knee wheel with a diamond tip, which is rotated by a horizontal bow on the shaft. Cornus officinalis and onyx seem to be the first choice materials for more functional items, but sapphire and aquamarine are one of the more precious gems imported by the Romans from distant places in India.
Roman jewelers are particularly skilled in their craft. They learn from their predecessors and adopt all-round metal processing techniques such as gold plating, granulation, relief, inlay and hollowing out. Rings, necklaces, bracelets, brooches, belt buckles, earrings, pendants, anklets and hairnets are all made of precious metals, usually with extraordinary details and craftsmanship. As time goes on, jewelry usually becomes heavier and more flashy, and it is by no means limited to women's wear.
heritage
In many ways, the Romans continued the art of early civilization, but as the art historian Martin Heineger summarized here, their artistic efforts went far beyond this:
The achievements of Rome ... completely violated the vulgar reputation generally attributed to ancient Rome. Inheriting the Greek tradition, Roman craftsmen kept innovating, and their works constantly amazed us with their exquisite forms. (Heineger, 165)
The contribution of Roman art to the overall development of western art includes: determination to record real historical events; Different styles of murals capture the architecture, natural landscape or still life at that time-including people and ordinary objects rarely depicted in previous art; A true portrait of a humble citizen. This is not new in art, but the Romans, like in many other fields, pushed the possibility of an idea to the limit and exceeded it.
By the end of the Roman period, new artistic ideas were developing and will continue to develop, but Roman art will have a lasting impact on all followers, especially Christian art and medieval manuscript painting. However, perhaps their greatest contribution to world art is to cultivate the concept that it is a good thing to appreciate art for art's sake, and owning artworks and even collectibles is the real symbol of a person's cultural maturity. In addition, even those who can't afford art by themselves have public art galleries. Art is no longer the exclusive domain of the rich. Art belongs to anyone, anyone. Romans are different from other cultures.