(Mesopotamia) Greek means the land between two rivers.
The original meaning is "Hejian area", also known as "two river basins". Broadly speaking, it refers to the middle and lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, east to Zagros Mountain, west to Syrian desert, south to Persian Gulf and north to Toros Mountain. The northern part is a mountainous area, which passes through grasslands and plains to reach the swamp and river delta in the south. Mesopotamia is one of the oldest cradles of human culture, and irrigated agriculture is the main foundation of its cultural development. In 4000 BC, the culture was relatively developed, and the Babylonian and Assyrian empires appeared. Since then, it has been ruled by Persia, Macedonia, Rome and the Ottoman Empire. After World War I, its main part became independent Iraq. In a narrow sense, it only refers to the area between the two rivers.
One of the earliest civilizations in the world-Mesopotamia civilization (also known as Two Rivers Civilization) originated in Sumer (middle and lower reaches), the watershed of Tigris River and Euphrates River. Mesopotamia is the seat of Babylon, in today's Iraq.
From 4000 BC to 2250 BC, the civilization of the two rivers reached its peak, which was called "the land of Shinar" in the Old Testament. The fertile soil piled up on both sides of the two rivers is called "fertile crescent belt" in history (the area with the same name as the "Golden Triangle" in South America is called "evil crescent belt"). Because the two rivers will not flood regularly like the Nile, it is necessary to observe the astronomical phenomena to determine the time. Sumerians living in the lower reaches invented the lunar calendar, which divided the year into 12 months and ***354 days, and invented the leap month, which was 1 1 day different from the solar calendar. Divide an hour into 60 minutes and take 7 days as a week. He can also calculate fractions, add, subtract, multiply and divide, solve quadratic equations with one variable, and invent 10 decimal method and 16 decimal method. They divided the circle into 360 degrees until π was close to 3. Even calculate the area of irregular polygons and the volume of some cones.
In 4000 BC, Sumerians first invented hieroglyphics with ideographic symbols and signifier symbols, because most of these characters were carved on bricks, stones or black basalt. On the clay tablet, "the pen is heavy and the imprint is deep", which looks like a wedge, so it is called cuneiform writing.
A famous example is the New Babylon Wall, one of the "Seven Wonders of the World". The city wall is bright blue as the background color, from white; A yellow lion; The patterns of cows and dragons are all over the city wall, arranged orderly from top to bottom, strutting and lifelike. It was called "Hanging Garden" by later generations.
Later, the Nile civilization and the Indus civilization developed under the impetus of the two river civilizations. The Greeks learned mathematics, physics and philosophy from there; Jews learned theology from there and spread it all over the world; Arabs learned architecture from there and used it to educate the whole barbaric Europe in the Middle Ages.
Around 2000 BC, the Amorites established the Kingdom of Babylon, with Babylon as its capital. In 1792 BC, Hammurabi ascended the throne, conquered Sumerians and Akkadians, unified the Mesopotamian plain, and promulgated the code of hammurabi, which was the first relatively complete written code in the world, but it was not the earliest, and the earliest was called the Ullner Code. There are 282 * * in code of hammurabi, carved on a black basalt pillar with a height of 2.25 meters. ..
In 689 BC, the kingdom of Babylon was destroyed by Assyria. In 605 BC, the new kingdom of Babylon destroyed Assyria. Later, the Temple came to power and was finally wiped out by Persia in the Iranian plateau in 538 BC. The civilization of the ancient two river basins ended as an independent whole.
Egyptian Nile civilization:
. Astronomy and mathematics
Agricultural production in ancient Egypt needs to know the exact date of the Nile flooding, so it is very important to determine the seasons according to the astronomical phenomena, and astronomical knowledge is constantly accumulating and enriching. The ancient Egyptians founded the earliest solar calendar in human history in 2787 BC. The formulation method is to set the day when Sirius and the sun rise on the horizon at the same time (when the Nile begins to flood) as the beginning of a year, with three seasons *** 12 months, 30 days per month, plus 5 days of year-end festivals * * * 365 days a year. This calendar only has a difference of 1/4 days every year, which is the original basis of the Gregorian calendar in the world today. Because the Nile floods every year, it is necessary to re-measure and demarcate the land. After years of work, the ancient Egyptians did more practical exercises in geometry than any other nation at that time, and accumulated a lot of mathematical knowledge. With the construction of water conservancy facilities, temples and pyramids, these mathematical knowledge has been applied and further enriched and developed. The ancient Egyptians used the counting system of 10 to calculate the area of rectangle, triangle, trapezoid and circle, as well as the volume of regular cylinder and truncated square cone. They use pi = 3.1605. Algebraically, the ancient Egyptians could solve linear equations with one variable and some simple quadratic equations with one variable. This knowledge later became the basis for the ancient Greeks to develop mathematics.
2。 Anatomy and medicine
The ancient Egyptians believed that people could continue to live in another world after death, so they dissected the dead and painted them into mummies. As a result, they have accumulated a lot of knowledge about human physiology and anatomy, which is undoubtedly beneficial to their medical development. Doctors in ancient Egypt were able to perform surgical operations to treat eye diseases, toothache, diarrhea, lung diseases and many gynecological diseases. They use all kinds of plants, animals and minerals to make medicines. Medicine in ancient Egypt was the most advanced in the world at that time, and this knowledge later had a great influence on western medicine through the ancient Greeks.
3。 Handicraft technology
Egypt's handicraft industry has also developed to a considerable extent. As early as 2700 BC, the ancient Egyptians built 47-meter-long ships. The technology of making glass was invented in 1600 BC, and the manufacturing technology of pottery, linen fabric, leather, papyrus (used for writing) and jewelry also reached a high level. Ancient Egyptians learned bronze smelting technology before and after the completion of 1500 BC, but copper resources were not rich. Iron was used late, and it was not until the 7th century BC that bronze was generally replaced.
4。 building technology
Architectural technology is a comprehensive technology, which can largely reflect the overall technical level of a society, especially in ancient times. The most remarkable technological achievement in ancient Egypt in human history is the construction of huge pyramids and temples with stones that still exist today. The pyramids are the tombs of ancient Egyptian pharaohs (kings). The largest of the more than 70 existing pyramids is pyramid of khufu, which was built in 2600 BC. The tower height 146.5 meters, and the bottom is a square with a length of meters. It is made of polished boulders, each weighing an average of 2.5 tons and using about 2.3 million boulders. The stones were not bonded with plaster, and the joints were tight. Temple architecture in ancient Egypt is also amazing. For example, in the 4th century BC/kloc-0, a temple was built in the Karnak Temple near the Nile. Its main hall covers an area of about 5,000 square meters and stands 134 huge circular stone pillars, of which the largest 12 is 3.6 meters in diameter and about 2 1 meter in height, which shows its spectacular degree. Under the condition of using stone tools and bronzes three or four thousand years ago, the ancient Egyptians actually built such magnificent buildings as pyramids and temples, which is really a miracle of human history.
5。 hieroglyph
6。 Papyrus literature
Egyptian hieroglyphics became one of the earliest characters in the world. After writing, Egyptians learned to immerse reeds in smoke and ink mixed with glue and write on a kind of "papyrus", thus leaving the earliest papyrus literature in the world.
Indus valley civilization:
Ancient Indian civilization was discovered in 1922. Because its site was first excavated in Halaba, India, it is usually called "Halaba culture"; Because these sites are mainly concentrated in the Indus Valley, they are also called "Indus Civilization". The age of Halaba culture is about 2300 BC to 1750 BC.
Halaba culture is the culture of the Bronze Age in ancient India, which represents a kind of urban civilization. Judging from the excavated urban sites, the planning and construction level of this city is quite high. For example, Yinghao City in Mohenjo, with an area of 260 hectares and divided into 12 blocks, has clean and wide streets, good drainage system, and some houses are exquisite and spacious, and has begun to enter the threshold of civilization. After hundreds of years, this civilization gradually declined and died out in the18th century BC. After the decline of Halaba culture, the Aryans, a nomadic people who invaded northwest India, established a more lasting civilization in India. Aryans appeared in northwest India around 2000 BC and gradually expanded to the south. By the early 6th century BC, it was said that India had formed 16 countries. After a long war of annexation, in the 4th century BC, a unified country centered on Mojeto was established in the Ganges River basin in the south.
During this period, the Indus Valley in northwest India was invaded by the Persian Empire. Persians ruled the Indus Valley for nearly two centuries, and it was not until the late 4th century BC that they were conquered by Alexander of Macedonia. Chandragupta led the anti-Macedonian uprising, unified northern India after expelling the invaders, and quickly overthrew the Nantuo dynasty in Mojeto, thus establishing the most powerful peacock dynasty in ancient India.
The peacock dynasty developed to its heyday in the time of Ashoka. After years of war, he extended the territory of the dynasty to the whole South Asian subcontinent except the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, including India, Pakistan and Bangladesh today. This huge empire was established through military conquest. Therefore, it fell into division shortly after the death of Ashoka. In BC 187, the last king of the Peacock Dynasty was overthrown. Since then, the Indian Peninsula has never been unified.
Ancient India is one of the cradles of human civilization and has made original contributions to human civilization in literature, philosophy and natural science. In literature, he created immortal epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. In philosophy, he founded "Ming Dynasty Studies", which is equivalent to today's logic. In natural science, the most outstanding contribution is the invention of universal counting method and the creation of 10 digital symbols including "0". The so-called Arabic numerals actually originated in India and only spread to the west through Arabs.
Yangtze river civilization:
The Yangtze River civilization is the general name of the regional civilization in the Yangtze River basin, and ranks as the two major sources of Chinese civilization along with the Yellow River civilization. The Yangtze River is the largest civilized region and the number and density of cultural sites in the world. The Yangtze civilization, especially the "rice cultivation" in the Yangtze civilization, has a great influence on East Asia and the world. The main ancient civilizations in China, such as the Yangtze River civilization and the Yellow River civilization, have influenced and merged with each other for a long time and become Chinese civilization.
Since the Qin Dynasty unified China, the civilization of the Yangtze River valley was further integrated with that of other parts of China. The mutual integration of regional civilizations in China has gradually produced Chinese civilization.
Yellow river civilization:
The Yellow River is the birthplace of the Chinese nation. 654.38+0.5 million years ago, Houdu ape-man appeared in Ruicheng County near the Yellow River in Shanxi Province. /kloc-Lantian ape-man 0/10,000 years ago and Dali ape-man 300,000 years ago were fishing and hunting on the banks of the Yellow River. Early Homo sapiens appeared in Ding Cun, Xiangfen, Shanxi 70,000 years ago; Late Homo sapiens appeared in Dagouwan, Uxin Banner, Inner Mongolia 30,000 years ago. The microlithic cultural sites from 10000-7000 years ago, the Neolithic cultural sites from 7000 to 3700 years ago, the bronze cultural sites from 3700 to 2700 years ago and the iron cultural sites appearing in 770 BC are almost all over the Yellow River basin. Since the Middle Stone Age, the Yellow River Basin has become the development center of ancient culture in China, which has opened the prelude to the development of the Yellow River civilization. The ancient civilization of our country originated from the Yellow River.
The formation period of the Yellow River civilization was roughly between 4000 BC and 2000 BC, which lasted for two thousand years. During this period, many regional civilizations appeared in China, such as Chengdu Plain Civilization, Jianghan Civilization, Taihu Civilization in the Yangtze River Basin, etc. Its representative archaeological cultures include Daxi Culture, Qujialing Culture, Shijiahe Culture, Songze Culture and Liangzhu Culture. There are Gan Qing civilization, Central Plains civilization and Haidai civilization in the Yellow River basin, and its representative archaeological cultures are Yangshao culture, Central Plains Longshan culture, Dawenkou culture, Shandong Longshan culture and Majiayao culture. There is Yanshan civilization in the northeast, and the representative archaeological culture is mainly Hongshan Culture. All regional civilizations have developed to a fairly high level, which is highly respected by the academic community. But later, some civilizations were interrupted and some civilizations went to a low tide. Only the Yellow River civilization, like the mainstay, is full of vigor and vitality, absorbs and integrates the essence of regional civilization and develops to a higher level. Corresponding to the above archaeological culture are the five emperors in the history of China, namely the Yellow Emperor, Zhuan Xu, Di Ku, Tang Yao, Yu Shun and Tai Hao and Shao Hao in Haidai. According to documents, their ethnic groups mainly multiplied, lived and developed in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, creating a splendid early civilization of the Yellow River. At this time, the society was full of nationalities, battlements, socialization of agricultural production, specialization of handicrafts and standardization of etiquette. The polarization between the rich and the poor, the emergence of classes, and the rapid development of culture and art at this time, the Yellow River civilization is in the formation period of great blending, which can be called the primary stage of national civilization or Chinese civilization.
The development period of the Yellow River civilization is its sublimation stage. From the time point of view, it is mainly Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties. At this time, the Yellow River civilization was mainly concentrated in the Great Central Plains in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, with Henan Province as the core, and the culture of the Great Central Plains was the center of the Yellow River civilization. The culture of Heluo area in the Central Plains (with Luoyang-Dengfeng line as the core) is the core of the Yellow River civilization. Heluo region generally includes the inner included angle continent and the outer included angle continent at the intersection of the Yellow River and Luohe, as well as the south of Shanxi and the north of Henan on the north bank of the Yellow River. Heluo cultural circle can extend to Guanzhong in the west and reach eastern Henan in the east. In the Heluo cultural circle, there are not only rich legends and relics of the Five Emperors, but also the capitals of Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Archaeological findings show that the cities belonging to this dynasty include Wang Chenggang Ancient City in Dengfeng, Zhengzhou, Henan Province (the former Eight Roads Site), Xinmixinzhai Ancient City in Zhengzhou, Erlitou City Site in yanshi city, Zhengzhou Mall, Yanshi Xianggou Mall in Luoyang, Yinxu Mall in Anyang, Huanbei Mall in Anyang, and the Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou Capital Sites discovered in Shaanxi and Luoyang. Cities in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties were all in Heluo area. Therefore, Heluo culture is not only a kind of regional culture, but also a kind of Wang Du culture that lasts for about two thousand years, and it is the core carrier of the Yellow River civilization. At this historical stage, the political power system has emerged, with relatively mature state institutions, relatively perfect ritual and music systems and relatively standardized writing. Science and technology, agriculture, handicrafts and commercial trade have developed rapidly, and the epoch-making bronze culture is famous at home and abroad. There are Bashu culture, Wuyue culture, Chu culture, Yanzhao culture and Qilu culture around Heluo culture. Through communication, absorption and integration, Heluo culture has been injected with vitality and become more active on the historical stage. During this period, many immortal works appeared, such as China's earliest collection of poems, The Book of Songs, and the philosophical Book of Changes. Schools such as Taoism, Confucianism, Mohism, Legalism, Military strategists and famous artists, which have influenced China for thousands of years, have mushroomed in Heluo area, creating a golden age for a hundred schools of thought to contend in China. Heluo culture enriched the content of Yellow River civilization and injected fresh blood. The light of civilization lit up the east of Asia, which not only lagged far behind the north and south of the Great Wall, but also enjoyed a high reputation in the world at that time.
The heyday of the Yellow River civilization is the historical stage of entering the feudal imperial civilization. From the Qin and Han Dynasties to the Northern Song Dynasty, Heluo region was at the core for more than a thousand years. The culture of imperial capital promotes the great progress of national science and culture. Qin Shihuang unified the six countries, abolished feudalism, established a county, shared the same car and book, and unified measurement. Han inherited the Qin system, which further standardized, improved and popularized this great civilization creation. Confucianism and Taoism in the pre-Qin period have been inherited and carried forward in all previous dynasties. Sinology is an important school founded by scholars in the Han Dynasty, with a long history and great influence. Their achievements in Confucian classics have always been regarded as classics by later scholars. Neo-Confucianism in the Song Dynasty played an important role in shaping the character of the Chinese nation. Imperial academy, the earliest institution of higher learning in China, is located in Luoyang, the capital of the Eastern Han Dynasty (now Luoyang, Henan Province), with a maximum of more than 30,000 students. After Cao Wei and the Western Jin Dynasty, a large number of talents were trained for all parts of the country, and many outstanding figures appeared. Astronomical calendar, agronomy, geoscience, medicine, water conservancy, machinery, architecture, smelting, ceramics, brewing, textile, paper making, movable type printing and other technologies have all created historical miracles; Han Fu, Tang Poetry, Song Poetry, Calligraphy, Painting, Sculpture, etc. They all climbed to the peak of culture and art; Various historical books handed down from later generations are vast, recording the history of the rise and fall of dynasties and social development from ancient times to the present. The famous Silk Road began in Xi in the Western Han Dynasty and in Luoyang from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Sui and Tang Dynasties. Xi and Luoyang were international metropolises for foreign cultural exchange and commercial trade. Therefore, the Han and Tang civilizations in the history of China are world-renowned. This fully shows that the Yellow River civilization has indeed developed into a new historical stage. The core of this highly prosperous Yellow River civilization is indeed within the scope of Heluo culture.
The main body of Chinese civilization is the Yellow River civilization, with its center in the Central Plains and its core in the Heluo cultural circle. The greatest characteristics of Heluo culture are shown in the following three aspects: First, the continuity of the national capital culture. During the Five Emperors and the National Period of the Yellow River Civilization, the Yellow Emperor (now xinzheng city, Henan Province) had bears, Zhuan Xu (now Puyang, Henan Province) had capital hills, Duyao had Pingyang (now Linfen, Shanxi Province), and Shundu (now yongji city, Shanxi Province) had general classes. During the development of the Yellow River civilization and the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties, the capital cities of Xia were Yangcheng (now xinzheng city, Henan Province), Yangzhai (now Yuzhou, Henan Province), Zhenzan (now yanshi city, Henan Province, namely Erlitou), Laoqiu (now Kaifeng, Henan Province), Shangdubo (now Shangqiu, Henan Province), Yi (now Zhengzhou Mall Site, Henan Province) and Yin. Xi 'an, Luoyang and Kaifeng were the capitals of the Western Han Dynasty to the Northern Song Dynasty in the imperial era when the Yellow River civilization was at its peak. The above capitals are all in the Heluo cultural circle, and the history of establishing the capital for thousands of years has formed a capital culture with great influence. This is the most prominent feature of Heluo culture. Second, the deep-rooted culture is another feature of Heluo culture, and the source of many civilizations is in this area. For example, the earliest country is here, and the four key points identified by the civilization traceability project started in recent years, namely Taosi in Linfen, Guzhen Village in Zhengzhou, Xinzhai and Wang Chenggang, are also here, and Chinese characters such as Hetu, Luoshu and Yijing, which are regarded as the source of traditional culture, are also produced here, namely Oracle Bone Inscriptions in Yinxu, Anyang, Henan. Due to various historical reasons, a large number of people in the Central Plains migrated in all directions, even overseas. According to the research of surnames experts, among the hundreds of surnames in China, there are more than 70 surnames whose ancestral home or roots are in the Central Plains. Nowadays, overseas Chinese, especially overseas Chinese, call themselves "Heluolang" and come to seek roots to worship their ancestors. Heluo area has become a holy land for cultural roots and surname roots. Third, the idea of great unification is deeply rooted and forms traditional national genes. The national personality that is good at absorption, tolerance, openness and cohesion is fully reflected in Heluo culture, but the most prominent one is the unified national gene. For thousands of years, people have waged unremitting struggles and made brilliant achievements in safeguarding national unity and strength and opposing separatism. This excellent tradition has now become the rock-solid cohesion and soul of the whole Chinese nation.