Marketing is the study of the whole transaction process in the economic society, but the transaction belongs to marketing. Please note that I use marketing, not marketing. Marketing studies the whole transaction process, so it is marketing to apply this research result to benefit myself or the enterprise. The whole transaction process is very complicated, which also leads to marketing problems, such as research and development, market research, strategy, segmentation and so on. All this process is a whole, and all the links involved in marketing must be done well, so that is the perfect marketing.
[Edit this paragraph] 1, authoritative definition
According to the definition of American Marketing Association, marketing is an organizational function and procedure that creates, communicates and delivers value for customers and manages customer relationships to benefit organizations and their stakeholders.
Philip? Kotler's definition emphasizes the value orientation of marketing: marketing is a social and management process in which individuals and collectives satisfy their needs and desires by creating and exchanging products and values with others.
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The definition given by Gronlos emphasizes the purpose of marketing: marketing is to establish, maintain and consolidate the relationship with consumers and other participants through mutual exchange and commitment under a kind of interest relationship to achieve the purpose of all parties.
E. McCarthy defines marketing as a process of social and economic activities, the purpose of which is to meet social or human needs and achieve social goals.
[Edit this paragraph] 2. New definition
① Jiang Gensong of Taiwan Province Province emphasized the variability of Marketing in Your Marketing, and made the following definition by borrowing the English marketing of marketing: "What is marketing?" Literally, the English word "Marketing" means "marketing". If the word "marketing" is divided into two parts: market and ing (English present progressive expression), then marketing can use "market present progressive expression" to express the subtle relationship between supply and demand.
② August 2004, Boston, USA. At the summer seminar of marketing lecturers of AMA (American Marketing Association), AMA announced a new definition of marketing, thus updating the official definition of marketing in AMA in recent 20 years. Since then, the new definition of marketing has caused extensive discussion in American marketing theory and practice. The new definition of marketing announced this time is revised on the basis of integrating the contributions of many marketers in the global theoretical and practical circles.
Professor Guo Guoqing from the Business School of Renmin University of China suggested that the new definition should be completely expressed as follows:
Marketing is not only an organizational function, but also a series of processes to create, spread and transmit customer value and manage customer relations for the benefit of the organization itself and its stakeholders.
One of the main forces driving the re-examination and revision of AMA's official definition of marketing is AMA's CEO Dennis. Dunlop The first official definition of marketing was adopted by AMA's predecessor, American Association of Marketing Teachers, in 1935, and formally adopted by AMA in 1948. 1960, when AMA re-examined the definition of the first edition, it decided to keep it unchanged without making any changes. In this way, the original definition of marketing has been used for 50 years until 1985. The revised definition is the most common definition of marketing today:
Marketing is a process of planning and implementing ideas, pricing, promoting and distributing goods, services and ideas to create communication that meets individual and organizational goals.
This definition has been used until now, and it was not revised until the summer of 2004. This new definition is the first revision of the definition of marketing in recent 20 years, and it is no wonder that it has attracted the general attention of marketers. Of course, the reason for attracting everyone's attention lies in the status of AMA. Therefore, if she makes such a modification, it will naturally attract attention from all sides.
[Edit this paragraph] 3. Marketing theory
The development of marketing theory has the following four stages:
The first stage: the initial stage. Marketing was founded in the United States from the end of 19 to the 1920s, and originated from the development of industry. At that time, the research scope of marketing was very narrow, only studying the setting of advertising and commercial outlets. And set up related courses in universities in Illinois and other States. The change from "American Advertising Association" to "National Association of Advertising and Marketing Teachers" provides organizational guarantee for marketing research. At this time, the research characteristics of marketing are as follows: a. Paying attention to promotion and advertising, but the theory, concept and principle of modern marketing have not yet appeared; B. Research activities are basically confined to university classrooms and professors' study rooms, and have not been paid attention to by society and business circles.
The second stage: the application stage. The application stage was from the 1920s to the end of World War II, and began to take shape. American domestic enterprises began to use marketing means to operate enterprises on a large scale and open overseas markets, and European countries followed suit. 193 1 set up "American marketing association" to preach marketing. 1937 The merger of the above two organizations attracted the participation of academic and business people, and marketing began to move from university platform to society. The development of marketing at this stage is manifested in application. Because of the unprecedented economic crisis in the capitalist world from 65438 to 0929, the economy experienced the Great Depression and great contraction, the purchasing power of society dropped sharply, and the market problems were unprecedentedly acute. This crisis has dealt a great blow to the whole capitalist economy. At this stage, the research characteristics of marketing are: a. There is no narrow concept of product promotion; B. Study promotion and advertising on a deeper and broader basis; C. study the organizational structure of enterprises conducive to promotion; D. Marketing theory research has begun to move towards the society, which has attracted the attention of the broad business community.
The third stage: the formation of the development period. The 1950s and 1980s were the development stages of marketing. The American military economy began to turn to the people's economy, with a sharp increase in social goods and a sharp increase in social productivity, while the corresponding consumption level of residents did not get much improvement, and the market began to appear in a state of oversupply. At this time, American marketing experts W.Aderson and R.Cox put forward that "generalized marketing is any activity that promotes producers and consumers to trade potential goods or services." This view makes marketing enter a new stage. Originally thought that the market is the end of the production process, now it is considered as the starting point of the production process; Originally thought that marketing is selling products, now thought that marketing is to understand consumers' needs and desires through investigation, to produce goods or services that meet consumers' needs and desires, and then to meet consumers' needs and desires; So that marketing can get rid of the enterprise framework and enter the social field of vision, with obvious management orientation.
The fourth stage: the mature stage. Since 1980s, it has been a mature stage of marketing, which is manifested in the following aspects: a. Association with other disciplines, such as economics, mathematics, statistics, psychology, etc. B. Start to form its own theoretical system; The 1980s was the revolutionary period of marketing, and it began to enter the field of modern marketing, which made the marketing look brand-new.
[Edit this paragraph] 4. Marketing concept
The evolution and development of marketing concepts can be summarized into five categories, namely, production concepts, product concepts, promotion concepts, marketing concepts and social marketing concepts.
(1) production concept
The concept of production is one of the oldest concepts to guide the behavior of sellers. This concept came into being before the 1920s. Business philosophy is not based on consumer demand, but on enterprise production. Its main performance is "what I produce, what I sell". According to the production concept, consumers like low-priced products that can be bought everywhere, and enterprises should devote themselves to improving production efficiency and circulation efficiency, expanding production and reducing costs to expand the market. For example, from 1869 to the 1920s, Fort Pierce Flour Company in the United States always used the concept of production to guide the operation of enterprises. At that time, the slogan put forward by the company was "The goal of our company is to make flour". American car king Henry? Ford once proudly declared: "No matter what color car customers need, I only have a black one." It is also a typical performance. Obviously, the concept of production is a business philosophy that emphasizes production and ignores marketing.
The concept of production came into being under the seller's market conditions. In the early stage of capitalist industrialization, the end of World War II and a period after the war, due to the shortage of materials and products in the market, the concept of production was quite popular in enterprise management. Under the old planned economy system in China, due to the shortage of products in the market, enterprises are worried that their products have no market, and industrial and commercial enterprises also pursue the concept of production in their operations, which is embodied in the following aspects: industrial enterprises concentrate on developing production, despise marketing, and implement fixed sales by production; Commercial enterprises concentrate on the supply of goods, buy whatever they produce in industry, and buy as much as they produce in industry, without paying attention to marketing.
In addition to the shortage of materials and products, the marketing management of some enterprises is also dominated by product concepts in the case of high product costs. Like Henry? At the beginning of this century, Ford devoted all its efforts to mass production of automobiles, striving to reduce costs and make them affordable for consumers, so as to increase the market share of Ford automobiles.
(2) product concept
It is also an early enterprise management concept. According to the product concept, consumers like products with high quality, multi-function and certain characteristics best, and enterprises should devote themselves to producing high-value products and constantly improve them. It comes from the situation of "seller's market" in which the market products are in short supply. The easiest place to breed product creativity is when enterprises invent new products. At this time, enterprises are most likely to lead to "marketing myopia", that is, improperly focusing on products rather than market demand, lacking foresight in marketing management, only seeing the good quality of their own products, but not the changes in market demand, which leads to the dilemma of enterprise management.
For example, the American ××× Watch Company was founded in 1869, and was recognized as one of the best watch manufacturers in the United States until the 1950s. The company emphasizes the production of high-quality products in marketing management, and distributes products through the marketing network composed of famous jewelry stores and department stores. Before 1958, the company's sales have been on the rise. But since then, its sales volume and market share began to decline. The main reason for this situation is that the market situation has changed: many consumers in this period are no longer interested in expensive watches, but tend to buy those economical, convenient and novel watches; Moreover, many manufacturers began to produce low-grade products to meet the needs of consumers, and actively promoted them through mass distribution channels such as cheap shops and supermarkets, thus winning most of the market share of XX Watch Company. Xxx Watch Company did not notice the change of the market situation, but still insisted on producing exquisite traditional style watches and still sold them through traditional channels, thinking that its products were of good quality and customers would come to you. As a result, the operation of the enterprise suffered a major setback.
(3) sales concept
The concept of promotion (or sales concept) came into being from the late 1920s to the early 1950s. It is another concept adopted by many enterprises, which embodies "what customers buy and what I sell". In its view, consumers usually show a purchasing inertia or rebellious psychology. If left alone, consumers generally will not buy enough enterprise products. Therefore, enterprises must actively promote sales and vigorously promote sales to stimulate consumers to buy their products in large quantities. Under the condition of modern market economy, the concept of promotion is widely used to promote those items that are not expected, that is, buyers generally do not think of buying products or services. Many enterprises often pursue the concept of promotion when there is a surplus of products.
The concept of promotion originated from the transitional stage from "seller's market" to "buyer's market" in capitalist countries. During the period of 1920- 1945, due to the promotion of scientific and technological progress, scientific management and mass production, the output of products increased rapidly, and a new situation of oversupply of products and fierce competition among vendors gradually appeared in the market. Especially during the economic crisis of 1929- 1933, a large number of products could not be sold, forcing enterprises to pay attention to promoting products by means of advertising and promotion. Many entrepreneurs feel that even if there are good and cheap products, they may not be able to sell them; In order to survive and develop in the increasingly fierce market competition, enterprises must attach importance to promotion. For example, under the guidance of this business philosophy, the Fort Pierce Flour Company of the United States proposed at that time that "our company aims at promoting flour". The concept of promotion still exists in today's enterprise marketing activities. For example, for products that customers don't want to buy, forced sales promotion is often adopted.
Although this concept is one step ahead of the first two concepts and has begun to attach importance to advertising and promotion, its essence is still production-oriented.
(4) marketing concept
Marketing concept is a challenge to the above concept and a new enterprise management concept. This concept is based on meeting the needs of customers, that is, "what customers need, they produce." Although this idea has a long history, its core principles were not basically finalized until the mid-1950s. At that time, social productive forces developed rapidly, and the market trend was a buyer's market with oversupply. At the same time, residents' personal income has increased rapidly, and it is possible to choose products. In order to realize the intensification of competition among enterprises, many enterprises begin to realize that in order to survive and develop, they must change their management concepts. According to the marketing concept, the key for an enterprise to achieve its goal is to correctly determine the demand and desire of the target market, and deliver the goods or services expected by the target market more effectively than competitors, so as to meet the demand and desire of the target market more effectively than competitors.
The appearance of marketing concept has brought about a fundamental change in the business philosophy of enterprises, which is a revolution in marketing. The concept of marketing is quite different from that of promotion.
Theodore? Levitt once made a profound comparison between the concept of sales promotion and the concept of marketing, pointing out that the concept of sales promotion focuses on the needs of sellers; Marketing concept focuses on buyers' needs. The idea of promotion is to take the seller's demand as the starting point and consider how to turn the product into cash; The marketing concept considers how to meet the needs of customers by manufacturing and delivering products and everything related to the final consumer products. It can be seen that the four pillars of marketing concept are: market center, customer orientation, collaborative marketing and profit. The four pillars of the promotion concept are: factory, product positioning, promotion and profit. In essence, the concept of marketing is a philosophy oriented to customers' needs and desires, and it is the embodiment of consumer sovereignty theory in enterprise marketing management.
Many excellent enterprises are pursuing the concept of marketing. For example, Honda Motor Company of Japan will launch a new Accord brand car in the United States. Before designing the new car, they sent engineers and technicians to Los Angeles to inspect the expressway, measure the length and width of the expressway on the spot, collect the asphalt of the expressway and photograph the design of the entrance and exit roads. After returning to Japan, they specially built a 9-mile-long highway, and even the road signs and signs were exactly the same as those on American highways. When designing the luggage, the designers had different opinions, so they went to the parking lot for an afternoon to see how everyone put their luggage. In this way, opinions were immediately unified. As a result, Honda's Accord became very popular as soon as it arrived in the United States, and it was called a good car acceptable all over the world.
Another example is Disneyland in America, where joy is as ubiquitous as air. It makes every child's dream come true from all over the world, and makes adults of all colors have the love of forgetting friends. Because when Disneyland was founded, its goal was clear: its products were not Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck, but happiness. People come here to have fun. Parks provide all the fun. Everyone in the company should be a happy soul. No matter who the tourists ask, they must answer with "Disney etiquette" and never say "I don't know". Therefore, tourists come back here again and again, enjoy the fun and are willing to pay the price. On the other hand, some entertainment cities, folk villages and world scenic cities in China, monotonous programs, expressionless explanations and indifferent faces make people feel cold, but how can they be happy? Thus, it is urgent for China enterprises to establish marketing concepts.
(5) the concept of social marketing
The concept of social marketing is a revision and supplement to the concept of marketing. It came into being under the new situation of western capitalist energy shortage, inflation, increasing unemployment, serious environmental pollution and the prevalence of consumer protection movement in the 1970s. Because the concept of marketing avoids the reality of the conflict between consumer demand, consumer interests and long-term social welfare. According to the concept of social marketing, the task of an enterprise is to determine the needs, desires and interests of each target market, and provide the target market with goods or services that can meet their needs, desires and interests more effectively and favorably than competitors by protecting or improving consumers and social welfare. The concept of social marketing requires marketers to consider three interests when formulating marketing policies, namely, corporate profits, meeting consumer needs and social interests.
The emergence and existence of the above five business management concepts have their historical background and inevitability, and they are all interrelated and adapted to certain conditions. At present, foreign enterprises are shifting from production to management or service. In order to survive and develop, enterprises must establish modern marketing concepts and social marketing concepts. However, it must be pointed out that due to many factors, not all American enterprises have established marketing concepts and social marketing concepts. In fact, there are still many enterprises that are oriented by product concept and marketing concept.
At present, China is still in the primary stage of socialist market economy. Due to the restriction of the development degree of social productive forces, the market development trend, the situation of economic system reform and the income of residents, China's business concept is still in the stage of marketing and coexistence of various concepts.
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