Similarities: ① North Korea and Japan are the main targets of foreign exchanges; (2) frequent economic and technological exchanges; ③ The government is the main participant in foreign activities; (4) Foreign exchanges are mainly by land.
The differences are as follows: (1) There were fewer kinds of articles and technologies exchanged with foreign countries in Han Dynasty, but the scope of exchanges in Tang Dynasty was wider, and it paid attention to the eclecticism of Chinese and foreign cultures; Compared with the Han Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty paid more attention to foreign exchanges, its policies were more enlightened, and more countries had contacts with the Tang Dynasty. The influence of foreign exchange in the Tang Dynasty on the world was more profound than that in the Han Dynasty.
Differences and reasons of foreign exchange in Han and Tang Dynasties
Zeng Xianhuan of Jiangxi Huichang No.1 Middle School
The Western Han Empire in the 2nd-/kloc-0th century BC and the Tang Empire in the 7th-8th century AD were great feudal empires living in the east of the world at that time. The two empires' stable politics, prosperous economy, advanced culture, developed external transportation and enlightened opening to the outside world promoted China's contact with the world and expanded its influence in the world. This paper compares the differences in foreign exchanges between Han and Tang dynasties, and probes into the reasons, hoping to discuss them with colleagues in the history teaching field in middle schools.
First, the differences in foreign exchanges between Han and Tang Dynasties
1. Different communication methods.
Foreign exchanges in the Western Han Dynasty were mainly by land and sea, in the Tang Dynasty by land and sea, and after the Anshi Rebellion by sea.
During the period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, there were four land routes for the Western Han Dynasty to communicate with foreign countries: one started from Yuji (now southwest of Beijing), passed through Yuyang in the northeast, traveled to Beiping, western Liaoning and Liaodong, and reached the Korean Peninsula (Le Lang Road). One starts from Chang 'an, passes through Hexi Corridor and Xinjiang in the west, and reaches as far as Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, and even eastern Mediterranean countries and southern Europe and North Africa (this road is the famous Silk Road, also known as Hexi Road). One is from Yongchang County (now Baoshan County, Yunnan Province), along the Yunnan-Myanmar Highway, to Myanmar and India (Yongchang Road). One starts from Nanhai (now Guangzhou), passes through Cangwu (now Wuzhou, Guangxi) and Yulin (now Guiping, Guangxi), and reaches Jiaotou, Jiuzhen and Rinan (all three counties are in the north of Vietnam). There were two overseas passages in the Western Han Dynasty: one was eastward, crossing the Bohai Sea from Qi (now northern Shandong) to the east, reaching the Korean Peninsula, and then going east around the Korean Peninsula to Japan. All the way south, from Xuwen (now Xuwen, Guangdong) and Hepu (now Hepu, Guangxi) along the offshore of zhina Peninsula, to the south of the peninsula and the countries of Malay Peninsula; Going west through the Straits of Malacca and crossing the Indian Ocean, you can reach Huang Zhiguo (now southeast India) (1) [this road is also known as the "Maritime Silk Road". It should be noted that the "Maritime Silk Road" in the Western Han Dynasty was not a direct line. Merchant ships from China generally docked in the Malay Peninsula, and merchants generally transshipped on land and then sailed to Bengal Bend and India.
There were seven channels for foreign exchange in the Tang Dynasty: five land routes and two sea routes. Lu Daoyou entered Andong Road (going to North Korea) from Yingzhou (now Changli, Hebei). From Zhou Xia (now west of Hengshan County, Shaanxi Province) to Datong and Yunzhong Road (to Mongolia). From the surrender city (now near Baotou City, Inner Mongolia), enter Huihe Road. The road from Anxi (to Central Asia) to the Western Regions. From Jiaozhou (now Hanoi, Vietnam) to Tianzhu Road (entering India via Myanmar). The sea route crosses the sea from Dengzhou (now Penglai, Shandong) to North Korea and Japan. Starting from Guangzhou, passing through Vietnam, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To India, Sri Lanka, and then to the western Arab countries (this is the famous Guangzhou Tonghai Road). ②
2. The content of communication between China and foreign countries is different.
During the Western Han Dynasty, foreign exchanges were mainly commodity exchanges, but diplomatic envoys and technical exchanges were not frequent, and there were also preliminary religious and artistic exchanges. The export commodities of the Western Han Dynasty pay equal attention to silk (silk) and lacquer (utensils), mainly warp silk, while the imports are luxury goods such as ivory, rhinoceros horn, jewelry, colored glasses and rare animals. Most of the envoys to the Western Han Dynasty were close neighbors of North Korea and Japan. Technical exchanges are limited to the Western Han Dynasty (such as Korea and Vietnam) and some countries in Central Asia (such as rest in peace). In terms of religion, Indian Buddhism was introduced to the mainland from Guishuang, but it was not widely popular among the people, and only part of the ruling class believed in it. In terms of art, musical instruments, music and dances, such as crickets, pipa, Hu Jiao and Hu Di, were introduced into the Western Han Dynasty from Central Asia.
The contents and forms of foreign exchanges in the Tang Dynasty are rich and varied, and the scale and frequency of foreign exchanges are amazing. In terms of diplomatic envoys: during the more than 260 years from 630 to 894, Japan sent envoys to the Tang Dynasty 19 times, with an average of about 400 people each time; During the period of 65 1 to 148 in 798, the government delegation sent by Dashi visited China 37 times to trade with China. Silla has the largest number of international students in sending international students. In 840 AD alone, 150 overseas students returned to China in the Tang Dynasty. Commodity exchange: The Tang Dynasty exported silk and porcelain, especially silk. The trade volume between China and foreign countries has risen sharply. For example, in the fifth year of Dali (AD 770), more than 4,000 ships traded in Guangzhou. Technical exchange: Silla introduced engraving printing, pottery making and copper making technology from the Tang Dynasty; Tang learned the method of boiling sugar (sucrose) from Tianzhu, and Tianzhu learned papermaking from Tang; Tang's papermaking and silk weaving techniques were introduced into big food. Religious exchanges: Islam, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism and Nestorianism were spread in the Tang Dynasty; Silla was introduced into Buddhism from the Tang Dynasty; Six major sects of Buddhism (Sanlun Sect, Faxiang Sect, Huayan Sect, Fazong Sect, Shicheng Sect and Serpent Sect) were introduced into Japan since the Tang Dynasty. Tang Xuanzang, Jian Zhen and Yijing were famous monks in the Tang Dynasty. They went abroad to study and spread Buddhism. Art exchange: Among the top ten national music in the Tang Dynasty, there are Korean music and Tianzhu music, and the art of Gandhara in northern India has also deeply influenced the sculpture art in the Tang Dynasty.
3. Communicate the difference of reciprocity.
The Western Han Dynasty's foreign exchange was dominated by one-way communication, that is, the Western Han Dynasty exported more things and imported less things, especially in commodity exchange. Tang's external communication is a typical two-way communication, with many outputs and many inputs.
4. Different degrees of opening to the outside world.
Although the rulers of the Western Han Dynasty actively strengthened their ties with the world and opened up two diplomatic circles, the opening up of the Western Han Dynasty was obviously still in its infancy. Although the Western Han government had political or economic contacts with more than 50 countries in the world, it was intermittent, and it was difficult to clearly see foreigners living, doing business, preaching, studying and being an official in China in historical records. The opening up of the Tang Dynasty reached a sustained, comprehensive and mature stage, which can be confirmed by a large number of foreigners living, doing business, preaching, studying and serving as officials in the Tang Dynasty. According to the records of Arab historians, in the 1970s, there were as many as1.2000 diners, Persians, Jews and Europeans in Guangzhou. Famous foreigners who came to China to study and be officials in the Tang Dynasty included Cui Zhiyuan of Silla and Abe Tadao of Japan.
5. Foreign contacts have different influences on China and the world.
Although the Western Han Dynasty's foreign exchanges far surpassed the Qin Dynasty and opened up two diplomatic circles, the Western Han Dynasty's foreign exchanges were intermittent. The diplomatic radiation areas of the Western Han Dynasty are mainly neighboring countries, but not all Asian countries. Diplomacy in the Western Han Dynasty was mainly active, often for political purposes. Therefore, the external culture has not really penetrated into the Western Han culture and the daily life of the Western Han people. The outside world's understanding of the Western Han Dynasty is not sufficient, and it mostly stays in pure material culture. Due to the influence of many factors,
The foreign exchange of the Tang Dynasty far exceeded that of the Western Han Dynasty. The foreign exchange in the Tang Dynasty lasted for a long time. The diplomacy of the Tang Dynasty radiated most Asian countries, and the frequent exchanges between neighboring countries and the Tang Dynasty made the world know more about the Tang Dynasty. The advanced political, economic system, science and technology culture in the Tang Dynasty profoundly influenced neighboring countries. Rich external world culture deeply penetrated into people's daily life in the Tang Dynasty, and exotic and colorful cultures were organically integrated with the culture of the Tang Dynasty. With a strong political, economic, military and advanced scientific and technological culture,
Second, the Han and Tang Dynasties different reasons for foreign exchanges
1, reasons for different communication methods.
The foreign exchanges in the Western Han Dynasty were mainly by land, which was restricted by objective factors at that time. Geographically speaking, China is a continental country. Although it faces the sea in the east and has a long coastline, it is impossible for the ancients to haunt the stormy waves and communicate with overseas countries without advanced shipbuilding and navigation technology. From the perspective of shipbuilding technology, the sea built in the Western Han Dynasty is 7- 12 meters long and 5-8 meters wide, with an aspect ratio of 7:5. This kind of seagoing ship is close to the ocean, so it is not suitable for sailing in the deep sea, and generally travels to and from the South China Sea. In terms of navigation technology, the navigators in the Western Han Dynasty only relied on the trade winds and sailed at sea with the help of simple star positioning technology. It can be seen that the maritime navigation in the Western Han Dynasty was subject to many objective factors, and it was not easy to carry out large-scale maritime traffic, so the Western Han government emphasized land traffic more.
The foreign exchanges in the Western Han Dynasty were mainly by land, which was also closely related to the distribution of economic center of gravity. During the Western Han Dynasty, the north was the national economic center and the silk industry center was in the north. At this time, the economy in the south of the Yangtze River was far from developed, and the economically developed northern region provided rich handicrafts for the Western Han government's foreign exchanges.
The progress of shipbuilding and navigation technology in the Tang Dynasty is an important reason for the increasingly frequent exchanges between Tanghai Road and Shanghai. The shipbuilding industry in the Tang Dynasty was far more developed than that in the Western Han Dynasty. 12 Southern states, such as Yangzhou, Changzhou, Yuezhou and Hongzhou, are all famous shipbuilding centers. The built ship is only over 20 feet long and can carry 600-700 passengers and tens of thousands of stones. On the South China Sea-Indian Ocean route, the ships of the Tang Dynasty are undoubtedly the biggest behemoths. Sailors in the Tang Dynasty sailed on the sea, relying on the comprehensive technology of trade winds, charts and leading stars across the ocean. According to Jia Dan's "Guangzhou Tonghai Post Road" in the Tang Dynasty, it is certain that navigators in the Tang Dynasty have mastered superb navigation techniques. After the Anshi Rebellion, due to the powerful forces of Tubo, it once controlled the western regions and blocked the smooth flow of the Northwest Silk Road, so maritime traffic was particularly important.
There is also an important reason for the increasingly developed maritime traffic in the Tang Dynasty, that is, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the middle and late Tang Dynasty, after hundreds of years of development, the economic outlook of Jiangnan has taken on a new look, and the rich silk weaving industry and porcelain making industry in Jiangnan have risen rapidly, providing a steady stream of handicrafts for overseas trade.
2. Different reasons for communication between China and foreign countries.
In the middle of the Western Han Dynasty, the farming economy was quite developed, and most of the material needs of the ruling class could be met at home. However, exotic luxuries such as ivory, rhinoceros horn, jewelry, colored glass, rare birds and animals were greatly loved by the ruling class, so the official trade of the Western Han Dynasty often exchanged silk and lacquerware for exotic things. The commodities exported by the Western Han Dynasty are silk and lacquerware, which are supported by the domestic advanced silk and lacquerware industry. During the Western Han Dynasty, the main handicrafts were silk weaving, lacquerware and iron smelting. At that time, the silk weaving technology and lacquerware making technology in the Western Han Dynasty were at the leading level in the world, and the output of silk and lacquerware also increased. Exquisite silk and lacquerware are mainly enjoyed by the ruling class at home, while they are the main export commodities abroad. The iron smelting industry in the Western Han Dynasty was limited by mining and smelting technology, and the output of iron was limited. Iron products mainly meet domestic agricultural production. For the sake of national security and technology monopoly, the Western Han government restricted the export of sericulture and reeling technology, as well as ironware. Only domestic and some countries in Central Asia along the Silk Road can exchange agricultural and handicraft technologies with the Western Han Dynasty. Many countries around the Western Han Dynasty have a certain gap in economic and cultural development compared with the Western Han Dynasty because of their different sizes, and few countries can be equal to the Western Han Dynasty. Therefore, it is impossible for the Western Han Dynasty to have frequent cultural exchanges with the envoys of neighboring countries.
Because of its political, economic and military strength and advanced science, technology and culture, the Tang Dynasty has a strong attraction to all countries in the world. Many countries rushed to establish diplomatic relations with the Tang Dynasty, sending envoys and overseas students to learn the political and economic system of the Tang Dynasty and spread the culture of the Tang Dynasty. During the Tang Dynasty, the main handicrafts were silk weaving, porcelain making, shipbuilding and iron smelting. Among them, silk weaving has developed greatly compared with the Western Han Dynasty, spreading all over the north and south, and the weaving and dyeing technology has been continuously innovated, and the output has doubled. Silk products in the Tang Dynasty were the highest level textiles in the world at that time, and they were favored in overseas markets. During the Tang Dynasty, the porcelain industry rose rapidly, forming two systems: Yue Kiln and Xing Kiln. In addition, capital production bases have also appeared in Changnan Town, Jiangxi Province and Sichuan Province. Relying on the advanced and popular silk weaving industry and porcelain making industry in China, the Tang Dynasty exported silk and celadon continuously. In the technical and cultural exchanges with foreign countries, many rulers in the Tang Dynasty treated all countries in the world with a broad mind with the confidence of the strong. Instead of taking their advanced technology and culture as their own, they generously and reasonably exchanged needed goods in a mutually beneficial way, actively absorbed advanced technology and culture from other countries, and enriched their economic and cultural connotations.
3. The reasons for the different reciprocity of communication.
During the Western Han Dynasty, the rulers strengthened their foreign contacts and established political or economic ties with more than 50 countries in the world. This seems to be a "great" achievement, but this "great" achievement is based on the "gift" transaction and is the external expression of the great country thought under the control of Confucianism. The rulers of the Western Han Dynasty tried to win over and soften countries with economic "gifts", thus establishing the image of a big country, which was more manifested in the positive exchanges of the Western Han Dynasty in foreign exchanges.
During the Tang Dynasty, the gap between the Tang Dynasty and neighboring countries in political, economic and cultural development was narrowing, and each country had its own strengths and advantages. In this case, the contacts between the Tang Dynasty and neighboring countries can be carried out on the basis of roughly equality, and the rulers of the Tang Dynasty pay more attention to reality and strive for mutual benefit in their foreign exchanges, rather than generosity.
4. Reasons for opening to the outside world in different degrees.
The opening up of the Western Han Dynasty was in its infancy, which was determined by historical objective reasons and mainly restricted by economic, cultural, scientific and technological reasons at that time. However, the comprehensive opening-up of the Tang Dynasty was the result of a combination of subjective and objective reasons. With the powerful national strength and political stability of the Tang Dynasty, the rulers of the Tang Dynasty followed the historical trend, opened their doors, accepted the trust of the powerful countries, and effectively promoted the opening up.
5. The reasons why foreign contacts have different influences on China and the world.
Because the Western Han Dynasty practiced spontaneous external communication, emphasized one-way communication, and exported a lot of things, mainly imported luxury goods. The technical and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries were not frequent, so the external culture did not have a deep impact on the Western Han culture and the daily life of the Western Han people. The diplomatic activities of the Western Han government through the two diplomatic circles were limited, and the exchanges and understanding between China and foreign countries were not sufficient. In addition, the economy of the Western Han Dynasty is in the development stage, and the handicrafts and cultural products exported to the outside world are limited, which has no impact on the world.
In the Tang Dynasty, many rulers continued to pursue an enlightened policy of opening to the outside world, and all countries, big or small, rich or poor, were treated equally in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the number of countries communicating with the Tang Dynasty is increasing, the content of Sino-foreign exchanges is constantly enriched and developed, and Sino-foreign exchanges are extensive and in-depth. The external culture has deeply penetrated into the culture of the Tang Dynasty and the daily life of the people of the Tang Dynasty. With its advanced and powerful politics, economy, military affairs and science and technology, the Tang Dynasty undoubtedly became the center admired by the world, and its prestige spread far and wide overseas.
The above is just a summary of my exploration in the teaching practice of Ancient History of China (experimental edition). Because of my limited level and reading materials, I will just talk about it briefly here. Please correct me if there is anything wrong.
Precautions:
1 "Han Shu"? Geography "includes.
2 "New Tang Book"? Geography "includes.
Bibliography:
1, A Brief History of Ancient China (2nd Edition) was published by Peking University Publishing House on September 1994 and edited by Zhang Yuxi.
2. The History of China's Ancient Foreign Trade was published by Guangdong People's Publishing House in June 1985 by Shen Guangyao.