2/kloc-0 At the beginning of the century, there were about 7 million Mayans. There are still a large number of ancient cultural heritages in southern Mexico and Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras. Some Mayans have been well integrated into modern culture, while others are still carrying on more traditional customs. Maya is the main language of these people.
It is said that in its heyday, the Mayan population reached 6.5438+0.4 million; There is a basically unified culture called Maya culture.
Most Mayans now live in Yucatan, Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico, as well as Belize, Guatemala, western Honduras and El Salvador in Central America.
Mainly engaged in agriculture, planting corn, broad beans, pumpkins, cocoa, sweet potatoes, peppers, tobacco and cotton.
Land is publicly owned and distributed to every family, and land is redistributed every three years. After A.D., there were freemen and slaves, and the rulers were called "adults", with hereditary positions and military and political power.
Maya civilization is a jungle civilization, distributed in five Central American countries, southeast of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Belize. Although it was in the Neolithic Age, it made great achievements in astronomy, mathematics, agriculture, art and writing.
Maya civilization, Inca empire and Aztec empire are listed as the three major civilizations in America.
According to the chronology of Central America, Mayan history is divided into pre-classical period, classical period and post-classical period. The pre-classical period (65438 BC+0500-300 AD) is also called the formative period, during which calendars and characters were invented, monuments and buildings were built. The classical period was its heyday (from the 4th century to the 9th century), during which the use of characters, the establishment of monuments, the construction of buildings and the exertion of art reached its peak. In the post-classical period (about 9th century-16th century), Chen Chi Itza, Smal and other city-states emerged in the north, and their cultures gradually declined. /kloc-In the 6th century, the Mayan civilization, the Inca Empire and the Aztec Empire were destroyed by the Spanish Empire.
Maya never had a unified and powerful empire like Greece and Egypt. In its heyday, the Maya region was divided into hundreds of city-states. However, Maya countries traditionally belong to the same cultural circle in terms of language, writing, religious beliefs and customs.
In some periods of the Quaternary, especially in the last glacial period, the sea level dropped by about130-160m, and a land bridge was exposed in the Bering Strait with a water depth of only tens of meters, connecting Northeast Asia and the northwest of America, becoming a natural passage between Asia and the United States. At that time, Northeast Asian hunters who hunted mammoths and deer for a living were likely to follow these animals across the Bering Strait Continental Bridge to America and become the ancestors of ancient American civilizations (including Mayan civilization).
Many ancient bones found in South and Central America are older than the oldest bones found in North America, and their physique is more similar to that of Javanese in Southeast Asia. Therefore, some people think that the earliest aborigines may have arrived in Central and South America from Southeast Asia through different sea routes in the South Pacific, and then spread all over the country.
After more than 20 thousand years of differentiation, Indians have produced many different nationalities and languages, among which the widely distributed Indians are the most obvious, resulting in Mayan civilization, Aztec civilization and other famous American civilizations
The extension of Mayan civilization in the classical and post-classical periods extended to the whole states of Chiapas, Tabasco, quintana roo, Campeche and Yucatan in Yucatan Peninsula. The Mayans also expanded the whole northern Central America, including Guatemala, Belize, northern El Salvador and countries in western Honduras today.
Generally, it is divided into three loosely defined areas: the lowlands in the South Pacific, the highlands in the northern lowlands and the Maya areas. Maya Highlands, including all elevations in Guatemala and Chiapas Plateau. The southern lowlands are located in the southern highlands, and part of the country includes the southern coasts of Chiapas, Guatemala, Belize and El Salvador. The northern lowlands cover the whole Yucatan Peninsula, including Yucatan, Campeche and Quintana Roo in Mexico, Peté n Province in Guatemala and Belize. Tabasco and Chiapas, as well as parts of Mexico, are also included in the northern lowlands.
According to the chronology of Central America, Mayan civilization can be divided into three periods: 65438 BC+0500-300 AD: "pre-classical period". 300-900 AD: "Classical Period". 900-16th century: "post-classical period".
It is said that the Mayans began to build religious buildings 1000 years ago, and the earliest remains were composed of some simple earth graves, which later evolved into pyramids. The early Mayan civilization seems to have been influenced by the earlier Olmec civilization. After spreading their culture to today's Yucatan Peninsula, Olmec civilization declined and perished for unknown reasons.
The period from 200 BC to 800 AD was the most prosperous period of Mayan culture. The Mayans developed hundreds of cities (mainly tropical rainforests) in this area, and Tikal is the largest one. Scholars estimate that at the peak, the city has 65,438+0-200,000 residents. They developed into many city-states with intensive agriculture and concentrated cities. Among them, the most striking remains are the pyramids built in the religious center and the palaces accompanying them. Other important archaeological sites include stone inscriptions, which are written in hieroglyphics and mainly describe genealogy, war victory and other achievements. Palenque was the most beautiful Mayan city in the classical period, so that people even called it "Athens of America". Another famous city is Copan. Judging from the scale of modern relics, Tikal, Copan and palenque can be regarded as the three largest city-states in the classical period of Mayan civilization. Since the 9th century, the city-states of Mayan civilization in the classical period suddenly declined at the same time, and the reasons are still the subject of historians' research. From 10 century to the end of 1 10 century, the once prosperous Mayan cities were abandoned and covered by jungle.
Since then, under the leadership of Chen Chi Itza, some Mayan city-states have sprung up on the prairie in the northern part of Yucatan Peninsula, which began to be called the post-classical period of Mayan civilization in history. 122 1 overthrew the city-state regime in Itza, Chen Chi, followed by the city-state alliance headed by Mayapan. 144 1 year, Maya Pan Zhengquan collapsed due to civil strife. When Columbus arrived in America in 1492, the Maya region was actually in a state of disintegration. 16th century, destroyed by the Spanish Empire.
The Mayans also participated in the long-distance trade in ancient Central America. The main currencies are cocoa, salt, obsidian, feathers, jade and tobacco. In classical times, most Mayan city-states attached great importance to recording history, and most city-states erected various monuments every once in a while. Today's archaeologists can learn some history of Mayan civilization through these memorial stone tablets, and because the Mayan calendar is quite accurate, today's historians can even know the exact dates of many events. For example, King Copan was beheaded on May 3, 738 after the defeat of the Eighteen Rabbits, and King Bagar II of palenque was born on March 6, 603. He became king at the age of twelve on July 29, 6 15, and died on August 28, 683 [5]. Such an accurate historical record is unmatched by other ancient civilizations on earth. Tikal's Monument to the Founding of the People's Republic of China appeared on July 8th, 1992 (usually regarded by historians as the beginning of Mayan classical civilization), and the last monument appeared in Tonina SiteNo.1kloc-0/in 909 (long calendar: 10.4.0.0, usually regarded by historians as the end of Mayan classical civilization). Since then, the custom of carving tablets has completely disappeared. The post-classical Mayan civilization after the decline of classical Mayan civilization could not reach the above accuracy. Today, the history of the period of Itza and Mayapan in Chen Chi is mainly learned from the legends that the early Spaniards heard from the local people.
In the classical period, the southern region was the most prosperous, so it was also called the southern Mayan civilization and the ancient Mayan civilization. The Mayans in this period were called the ancient Maya. The Mayan civilization after the decline of the southern Mayan civilization is called the northern Mayan civilization.
Characteristics of civilization:
Belonging to the Neolithic civilization, the Mayans didn't have bronzes, let alone ironware (but made pottery and stone tools). Mastered a high degree of building technology, the Mayans could not use copper and iron, nor could they use unicycles like other Indians. Although the concept of wheel appears in artifacts such as pottery and a small toy, it is not practical in real life. But it has created a high degree of urban civilization. The building is mainly composed of stepped pyramid altars and limestone. It is not only used in temples and tombs, but also as a measuring and observing tool in astronomy. Agriculture takes corn as its staple food, so it is also called "corn civilization". There are no cows, horses, pigs or sheep, and there are no traces of animal husbandry. Farmers use a very primitive Milpa farming method (slash-and-burn, also known as fire farming) to grow corn and other crops. Maya not only planted crops, but also hunted. Mathematics adopts decimal system, and the concept of "zero" is discovered and used (on the other hand, it is Olmec's), and it is used to "hundred million". As we all know, the Earth, Venus and other celestial bodies move regularly. Master a high degree of knowledge of mathematics and astronomical calendar. Use unique hieroglyphics: Mayan characters. The calendar system consists of three calendars: the divine calendar, the solar calendar and the long calendar. Maya civilization is different from the other four civilizations. It did not originate in river basins, but rose in volcanic highlands and dense tropical rainforests.
Divided into nobles, priests, civilians and slaves. Nobles are divided into real people, village heads, village head assistants, police officers, etc. Priests of noble birth are responsible for presiding over religious ceremonies, guiding agricultural production, guiding construction projects, predicting astronomical phenomena such as solar and lunar eclipses, and when to sow and harvest. Civilians are mainly farmers, but also construction workers and masons. Give gifts and tributes to nobles and priests. Most Mayans. They did almost all the work for the nobles and priests. Slaves work for the upper class. Mainly through war, but also thieves and nobles who became prisoners of war.
Mayan women wear straight skirts like sacks with embroidery at the neckline; Put on a scarf when you go out and wrap your face around your chest. Most men wear fig leaf, shawl, sandals and headdress. There are shells, skins, pigments, feathers and pendants on the clothes of nobles and priests.
1880, Ernst Faustmann, a German librarian and archaeologist, cracked the secret. He studied the writing of Mayan hieroglyphs, because Mayan hieroglyphs only have two syllables. For example, Balaam means jaguar, and can only write jaguar's head, which can be said to be a phonetic form and a combination word.
Unique hieroglyphics are used by exaggerating and abstracting God's head. Mayan characters are like Chinese characters. It is a combination of hieroglyphics and sounds. Maya carved characters not only represent a whole concept, but also have their own unique pronunciation. This is similar to the relationship between Chinese characters and pseudonyms in Japanese. For example, the "shield" in Mayan language can be written as an ideograph, and it can also be divided into three kinds of phonography: pa, ka and la. The vowel of "la" is based on the CVC principle studied by Russian scholar Yuri Konolosov. The development level of Mayan hieroglyphics is comparable to that of China, but the symbol combination is far more complicated than that of Chinese characters, and the block is approximately round or oval. The lines of characters also change with the ups and downs of graphics, which are round and smooth. The main part of a character in Mayan script is called the main character and the secondary part is called the connecting character. There are two kinds of fonts, namely "geometry" and "head body", and there is also a "whole body" composed of patterns of people, animals and gods, which is mainly used for calendars. Mayan characters are read in groups of two lines from top to bottom, and the order is "left → right → (next paragraph) left → right". 90% of Mayan characters can now be interpreted and taught among Maya people in Mexico. The style of Mayan characters is highly coupled with Chinese characters, or has reached the same height as Chinese characters. Specifically, there are only four Maya printed books with Mayan characters in the world, which are the treasures of word research, and the others have been destroyed by the Spanish; Most of the hieroglyphics left are engraved on the remains and monuments of the temple altar.
There are many gods in Mayan civilization, such as creator, rain god, corn god, black god of war, human deity, wind god, sun god, moon god, Polaris god, suicide god, quetzalcoatl god and so on.
The Maya first learned to make something similar to modern football with natural rubber, which also originated from religious ceremonies.
Cuju is not only a local leisure activity, but also has religious significance. Formal competition is often regarded as a struggle between the gods in the sky or the masters in the underground world, and the ball itself represents the sun.
In the official competition, the leader of the losing team will be beheaded by the leader of the winning team or take out his heart as a living sacrifice, and his head will be the center of the new ball.
Mexican archaeologists discovered the tomb of Bacar II in the temple of palenque. For many years, people have always thought that the Mayan pyramids were used as temples, which is different from the pyramids in Egypt. The discovery of Bagar II's tomb changed this view.
The Mayan calendar is prophetic: 20 12 theory of human extinction. In the 8th century AD, the Mayans predicted that a white-skinned god would cross the ocean to reach the Yucatan Peninsula, and the time was1565438+March 5, 2009. This god is not Columbus, but Hernando Cortes, the Spanish conqueror. The solar eclipse on July 22, 2009.
Maya is different from the other four civilizations. It did not come into being in river basins, but rose in volcanic highlands and dense tropical rainforests. Maya mainly ate corn and beans, with relatively little meat, and did not eat wheat. The main crops are corn, cotton, tobacco, tomatoes, cocoa and so on.
Maya used the waterproof characteristics of limestone and the sloping ground to let rainwater flow into the reservoir, built many sophisticated irrigation systems, and formed irrigated agriculture. Unlike the four major civilizations, the Maya's water source was rain, not rivers.
Although Mayan civilization is an urban civilization, it is based on corn agriculture. Since ancient times, Mayan farmers have adopted a very primitive "Milpa" farming method: slash and burn.
The Spanish transported corn, cocoa and other crops planted by the Mayans to all parts of the world, which was not only deeply loved by people, but also effectively alleviated the famine.
The latest research points out that Maya villages in lowlands often benefit from volcanoes, and volcanic ash blows to lowlands with airflow, making the soil fertile and conducive to farming. Evidence shows that Buntikal, the largest city of Mayan civilization, can live in more than 400 to 600 people per square kilometer. Due to the weathered limestone terrain, the soil is very poor, and it is difficult to grow enough crops to feed such a large population. The volcanic ash handed down from the highlands can "irrigate" the flat and barren land. According to experts, as long as a few centimeters thick volcanic ash can make the soil fertile for more than decades, so volcanic ash has contributed to the century-old civilization of Maya. The researchers pointed out that many temples based on "volcano" can be seen in Mayan cultural sites, which shows that volcano is an indispensable part of Mayan life.
Many crystal skulls are claimed to have originated from the Aztec or Mayan civilizations in Central America. Although there are many skull images in Central American art, there are no excavation records of crystal skulls in the collection. In 1976, 1996 and 2004, researchers conducted a series of experiments on crystal skulls in the British Museum. Experiments show that the saw line for distinguishing teeth is carved with a jewelry tool invented only in19th century. This raises many questions about the Central American origin of the crystal skull. According to the experimental research, these skulls were made in Germany in the19th century and probably came from Idar-Oberstein. /kloc-At the end of 0/9th century, this town was famous for importing timely handicrafts from Brazil.
The ancient Mayans didn't know about telescopes or Copernicus' Heliocentrism, but they knew the precise running period of celestial bodies, which was very close to modern times. For example, the modern accurate measurement value of the solar year is 365.2422 days, but the ancient Mayans knew that the length of the solar year was 365.2420 days, only 0.0002 days less than the accurate figure, equivalent to 17.28 seconds. They calculated that the correct time of a year is 365 days, 3 hours, 45 minutes and 48 seconds, so they always have 19. Maya's calculation of the rendezvous period of Venus can be accurate to only one day every 6000 years. The calendar also points out that the time for the moon to circle the earth is 29.50588 days, while the measured value of modern science and technology is 29.995 days. Maya observed that the Pleiades star cluster would rise in the sky for the first time on March 15 every year, and it would rise one day earlier every 72 years. Another 72 years, one day earlier. About 26,000 years later, the Pleiades will rise again on March 15 (calculated as 26,280, because the Pleiades will rise one day earlier every 72 years; In another 72 years, it will be one day earlier, with 365 days in a year, so 365 times 72 equals 26280). Through long-term observation, the Mayans witnessed the earth, the sun and the center of the Milky Way slowly approaching and lining up in the winter solstice in 12, which is a once-in-26,000-year phenomenon and one of the sources of the theory of human extinction in 20 12.
The Mayans created a surprisingly high level of civilization, but why the Mayan civilization suddenly disappeared in the classical period is still inconclusive. Scientists and archaeologists have put forward many hypotheses about the mystery of the demise of Mayan civilization, such as foreign invasion, population explosion, infectious diseases, climate change, peasant uprising and so on.
As far as the geographical environment of Maya is concerned, the most convincing thing at present is that due to the excessive development of civilization, excessive resource consumption and environmental damage. In addition, living in the fragile rainforest, the Maya who used primitive farming techniques could not bear the huge population, and even a war for resources took place, which led to the exile of the Maya.
The Maya's profound knowledge and culture are only in the hands of a few nobles and priests, and the civilians and slaves who account for the vast majority of the Mayan population are completely illiterate. Noble intellectuals who are pampered and pampered almost can't survive or even disappear soon after their splendor is exhausted. Maya civilization in the late classical period is slightly different from that of Chen Chi Itza, but it is more dynamic. However, successors can't keep the vitality of Itza, Chen Chi. The signs are that buildings are no longer built and city life disappears. /kloc-When the Aztec Empire rose in the 0/4th century, Maya had entered a period of decline.
Research shows that one of the important factors of the decline of Mayan civilization may be the continuous decrease of rainfall for decades. The research team examined the alluvial soil in the Garrico Basin in northern Venezuela and found that the titanium content in it had changed. This can show the change of annual rainfall. The researchers found that there were three droughts around 8 10, 860 and 9 10, and according to archaeologists, those years were the period when Mayan civilization went downhill. The research report said: "The decrease of rainfall in the past century has made the supply of resources in Maya areas tense, and drought has made the situation worse, causing social tension and leading to the demise of Mayan civilization." The Mayans lived on normal rainfall. They built reservoirs, canals and other systems to collect rainwater.
In the summer of 2002, Arthur Demary of the Institute of Central American Archaeology of Vanderbilt University announced that the newly discovered hieroglyphs were recorded in Dos pilar. There is an ancient pyramid there. A heavy rain this summer knocked down a big tree, revealing the long-hidden steps of 18. Federico Fassen, another expert on Maya studies at Vanderbilt University, said: "Hundreds of new hieroglyphs have filled the gap in Maya history for 60 years and clarified the political and military relations in this critical period." Demarest said that there were many wars in the 7th and 8th centuries. Now it seems that this is actually a Mayan "world war", involving all the cities under the control of the two major city-States.
At this time, the Mayan civilization is about to move towards a higher organizational form and consolidate into a single great empire. However, Tikal recovered the lost land after being looted and defeated calakmul in 695. Calakmul and Dos pilar never recovered, while Dos pilar was abandoned in 760. After that, the whole Mayan world was divided into many places and centralized, and entered a period of fierce small-scale war, which eventually led to the decline of Mayan civilization.
At the end of 1523, Hernando Cortes, the Spanish conqueror, ordered his department to conquer the Mayan city-state with Valadeau, set up Guatemala City, and began to colonize the Mayan region. Exotic diseases such as smallpox and cholera brought by the Spanish will also kill 90% Maya in the next 100 year.
However, many Mayan documents (Mayan engravings) were destroyed and executed by foreign invaders, and the Maya who knew them lost a lot of important materials to interpret Mayan civilization. At present, there are only three engravings in the world, or four fragments: Dresden engraving, Madrid engraving, Parisian engraving and Grorrie engraving. One of the figures who destroyed Mayan literature was Bishop Diego de Landa, who ordered the destruction in July 1562.
/kloc-After the Mayan civilization was completely destroyed by the Spanish in the 6th century, the site was covered by the rainforest for nearly 300 years and became a legend.
/kloc-at the end of 0/7, a Spanish missionary discovered the site of Tikal in the jungle.
1839, American archaeologist Stephens and British painter Garsewood discovered Copan according to legend. The two adventurers recorded their impressions of Copan, an abandoned city: it was like a broken ship in the Wang Yang, with no mast and no crew. No one knows when it came and what destroyed it. Everything is a mystery.
Some people think that this civilization was founded by ancient astronauts, such as astronomy and mathematics. This argument is called alien creationism.
According to legend, the Mayans believed that this knowledge came from their gods and that they existed among the stars. The Mayans believed that the gods would return on February 2, 20 12 12. The Mayans said that this knowledge was not what they thought, but a gift from the gods. The Mayans believed that gods came from the stars, including Ku Ku Ku Kun, the quetzalcoatl. According to legend, Ku Ku Ku Kun can fly. He brought quite advanced construction technology and all kinds of knowledge, and promised that he would come back one day.
Mayan Civilization Sites: calakmul, Itza, Chen Chi, Koba, Copan, Tikal, U Smal, palenque, Bonampak, Tonina, Kirigua Site, Maya Pan.