(1) The agricultural and industrial technologies in ancient Egypt and the original scientific automobile parts played a trick of invading science. The beauty blog final was held in Beijing. Mobile phone charges are lowered. Located in the Nile valley in northeast Africa, an ancient civilization dominated by agriculture-the Kingdom of Ancient Egypt appeared 4000 BC. It is the country with the longest history of slavery in the world and was occupied by foreigners in 525 BC. In terms of technology, ancient Egypt has long influenced neighboring nationalities and left a precious legacy for human civilization. Ancient Egypt was the first country in the world to enter the slave society, so its origin and science and technology based on ideological externalization must be at the highest level of development in the world at that time. Astronomy and mathematics. Agricultural production in ancient Egypt needs to know the exact date of the Nile flooding, so it is very important to determine the seasons according to the astronomical phenomena, and astronomical knowledge is constantly accumulating and enriching. The ancient Egyptians founded the earliest solar calendar in human history in 2787 BC. The formulation method is to set the day when Sirius and the sun rise on the horizon at the same time (when the Nile begins to flood) as the beginning of a year, with three seasons *** 12 months, 30 days per month, plus 5 days of year-end festivals * * * 365 days a year. This calendar only has a difference of 1/4 days every year, which is the original basis of the Gregorian calendar in the world today. Because the Nile floods every year, it is necessary to re-measure and demarcate the land. After years of work, the ancient Egyptians did more practical exercises in geometry than any other nation at that time, and accumulated a lot of mathematical knowledge. With the construction of water conservancy facilities, temples and pyramids, these mathematical knowledge has been applied and further enriched and developed. The ancient Egyptians used the counting system of 10 to calculate the area of rectangle, triangle, trapezoid and circle, as well as the volume of regular cylinder and truncated square cone. They use pi = 3.1605. Algebraically, the ancient Egyptians could solve linear equations with one variable and some simple quadratic equations with one variable. This knowledge later became the basis for the ancient Greeks to develop mathematics. Anatomy and medicine. The ancient Egyptians believed that people could continue to live in another world after death, so they dissected the dead and painted them into mummies. As a result, they have accumulated a lot of knowledge about human physiology and anatomy, which is undoubtedly beneficial to their medical development. Doctors in ancient Egypt were able to perform surgical operations to treat eye diseases, toothache, diarrhea, lung diseases and many gynecological diseases. They use all kinds of plants, animals and minerals to make medicines. Medicine in ancient Egypt was the most advanced in the world at that time, and this knowledge later had a great influence on western medicine through the ancient Greeks. Handicraft technology. Egypt's handicraft industry has also developed to a considerable extent. As early as 2700 BC, the ancient Egyptians built 47-meter-long ships. The technology of making glass was invented in 1600 BC, and the manufacturing technology of pottery, linen fabric, leather, papyrus (used for writing) and jewelry also reached a high level. Ancient Egyptians learned bronze smelting technology before and after the completion of 1500 BC, but copper resources were not rich. Iron was used late, and it was not until the 7th century BC that bronze was generally replaced. Building technology. Architectural technology is a comprehensive technology, which can largely reflect the overall technical level of a society, especially in ancient times. The most remarkable technological achievement in ancient Egypt in human history is the construction of huge pyramids and temples with stones that still exist today. The pyramids are the tombs of ancient Egyptian pharaohs (kings). The largest of the more than 70 existing pyramids is pyramid of khufu, which was built in 2600 BC. The tower height 146.5 meters, and the bottom is a square with a length of meters. It is made of polished boulders, each weighing an average of 2.5 tons and using about 2.3 million boulders. The stones were not bonded with plaster, and the joints were tight. Temple architecture in ancient Egypt is also amazing. For example, in the 4th century BC/kloc-0, a temple was built in the Karnak Temple near the Nile. Its main hall covers an area of about 5,000 square meters and stands 134 huge circular stone pillars, of which the largest 12 is 3.6 meters in diameter and about 2 1 meter in height, which shows its spectacular degree. Under the condition of using stone tools and bronzes three or four thousand years ago, the ancient Egyptians actually built such magnificent buildings as pyramids and temples, which is really a miracle of human history. (2) Agro-industrial technology and primitive science in ancient two river basins, namely Tigris River and Euphrates River in West Asia. The two river basins are now Mesopotamia, Iraq. From 4000 BC to the 6th century BC, the slave kingdoms of Sumer, Babylon, Assyria and Chaldea (New Babylon) in this region changed one after another. The ancient civilization in the two river basins and the ancient Egyptian civilization almost coexist, and their scientific and technological achievements. It is also comparable to the latter. Astronomy and mathematics. In astronomy, the calendar of two river basins in ancient China was made earlier than that in ancient Egypt. Their calendar is the lunar calendar, that is, the rise and fall of the moon takes 29.5 days as a month, and a month is alternately arranged with 29 days and 30 days. A year is 12 months, that is, 354 days. The shortage of days can be solved by setting a leap (a few years plus a leap month). People in the ancient two river basins learned to distinguish between planets and stars, drew the earliest star map in the world, and divided the stars near the ecliptic (the track of the sun) into 12 houses. The constellations in each palace are named after mythical gods or animals. Ancient two river basins made great achievements in algebra. The symbol is a combination of 10 and 60. For the convenience of calculation, many tables have been compiled, including multiplication table, reciprocal table, square table, square root table, cubic table and cubic root table. They can solve univariate linear equations, multivariate linear equations, some univariate quadratic equations and even some special cubic equations, quartic equations and exponential equations. Geometrically, the outstanding contribution of the people in the ancient two river basins was to divide the rounded corners into 360 according to the 60-decimal system. 1。 Divided into 60', 1' divided into 60'', this method has been used to this day. Like the ancient Egyptians, they can correctly calculate the area of many plane graphics and the volume of three-dimensional graphics. Medicine and biology. There are more than 800 pieces of medical clay tablets (the prepared wet clay tablets are engraved with words) in the ancient two river basins, which reflects that doctors at that time used drugs and massage to treat diseases, used more than 150 kinds of plant medicines, and also used some ointment made of animal oil for treatment. Record the diseases treated by doctors, such as cough, stomach trouble, jaundice, stroke, eye diseases, etc. Some clay tablets recorded the names of 100 species of animals and 250 species of plants, which were listed as the earliest animals in the world. In ancient times, people in the two river basins also carried out artificial pollination when jujube trees were in bloom to increase the yield of jujube trees. Handicraft industry and building technology industry. Around 3000 BC, Sumerians made the earliest unicycle in the world. Later, they invented pottery with pottery wheels, and they could also make animal-drawn seeders. During the Babylonian kingdom of Cuba more than 3600 years ago, the glass manufacturing industry had a considerable scale. From some stained glass devices that have been handed down to this day, we can see the high technical level at that time. In ancient times, the building materials in the two river basins were mainly technical materials and unfired mud bricks, and sometimes stones were used, so few buildings could be preserved. In the 7th century BC, the urban construction in the period of the New Kingdom of Babylon showed a fairly high level of technology. There are three walls inside and outside Babylon, with more than 300 towers on them. A straight road paved with stone slabs runs through the city. The hanging garden next to the palace is called one of the seven wonders of the world by later generations. Metallurgical technology. Around 4000 BC, Sumerians began to make bronzes. During the Babylonian period around 1800 BC, bronzes were widely used and were more advanced than the ancient Egyptians. Around 1900 BC, the Hittites of Asia Minor Peninsula in the northwest of Lianghe Valley invented the technology of smelting iron and popularized the use of iron to Lianghe Valley. In the 8th century BC, the Assyrian kingdom in the two river basins used a lot of iron to make weapons, which formed a powerful military force with poverty and poverty, and at the same time showed that the two river basins had entered the Iron Age. The agro-industrial technology and primitive scientific civilization in ancient Egypt and the two river basins show that primitive science has begun to enter the threshold of theoretical knowledge after human beings entered a civilized society, but this theory can only come from direct empirical technology, so the basic characteristics of primitive science are still empirical. Due to political and religious needs, there have been mental workers like priests. They have mastered the culture, and while carrying out religious activities, they have also played a considerable role in summarizing and deepening the original scientific knowledge. In the process of continuous improvement of social productive forces, technology has made great progress, showing the wisdom and creativity of workers, especially craftsmen. (III) Agro-industrial Technology and Primitive Science in Ancient Greece In the 6th century BC, when ancient Egypt and the two river basins were successively occupied by foreigners and their cultures declined, a new scientific and technological civilization rose in the Greek region of Europe. Ancient Greece includes the surrounding areas centered on the Aegean Sea, including today's Greek mainland and the Ionian region on the east coast of the Aegean Sea (now the west coast of Turkey), as well as parts of southern Italy (including Sicily). As early as around 2000 BC, slave city-states appeared in Crete, Greece. After changes, in the 6th century BC, the social economy and culture of ancient Greece, represented by the Athens city-state, entered a prosperous period, which was called "Athens period" in history. At this time, a large number of scholars specializing in academic research appeared. Many of them visited Egypt and the two river basins and learned advanced local scientific and cultural knowledge. By the 4th century BC, after the northern Macedonians defeated Greece, they launched an eastward invasion with the Greeks and established a great empire across Europe, Asia and Africa. At this time, the cultural center was transferred from Athens to Alexandria, belonging to Egypt. Greek culture flourished again, and science made new progress, which is called "Alexandria period" (or "Hellenistic period"). BC 1 century, the Romans conquered the Greek mainland and the active areas of the Greeks, and the history of ancient Greece ended. Astronomy. Astronomy in ancient Greece began with scholars' observation and speculation on the motion of celestial bodies. Some of their conclusions still have some truth today. For example, "the earth is in the air and there is nothing to support it", "the moon does not shine by itself, but reflects sunlight; The sun is as big as the earth and is pure fire. The universe is centered on the earth, and the earth is also spherical. The reason for the solar eclipse is that when the sun passes the moon, the moon blocks the light and casts a shadow on the ground. Just as the world has its birth, the world has its growth, decline and destruction. Constructing the model of the universe is an important content of ancient Greek astronomy. Pythagoras school first put forward a model of the universe: the whole universe is spherical, and the central celestial body is called "central fire". The earth, the sun, the moon and the five planets of gold, wood, water, fire and earth all revolve around the central fire. The cosmological model built by Auddock Sow (408-355 BC) is centered on the earth, and five planets and stars are attached to 27 concentric transparent spherical shells and revolve around the earth. In order to better explain some complex phenomena of celestial motion, people constantly improve Odox's cosmological model by adding concentric spheres, and the number of concentric spheres reaches 55 at most. In Alexander's time, Hipparchus (about BC 190 ~ BC 120) created the present even-numbered wheel model to replace the concentric sphere model. This model still takes the earth as the center of the universe, and all celestial bodies move in a uniform circle along their own "current wheel", and the center of this current wheel also moves in a uniform circle around the earth along its own "uniform wheel". This model is simpler than the concentric sphere model, and can better explain the change of the distance between the sun and the earth and the irregular apparent motion of the planet. In ancient Greece, when geocentric theory prevailed, an astronomer named Alistair (about 3 10 ~ 230 BC) proposed Heliocentrism! He thinks that the sun and stars are motionless, the earth and planets revolve around the sun, and the earth rotates once a day around its own axis. This is the predecessor of Copernicus' theory. Unfortunately, it was not understood at that time, and Alistair was accused of blasphemy. Ancient Greece made many achievements in astronomy. For example, Auddock and Eratosthenes of Alexandria (about 273 ~ 192 BC) once measured the circumference of the earth's equator by astronomical methods, and the result measured by the latter was only 385.6438+03km less than that measured today. Xi Parker first discovered precession (that is, the phenomenon that the vernal equinox moves westward) in the history of astronomy. He also calculated the tropical year, the new moon and the ratio of the moon to radius of the earth, which are very close to today's measured values. He is also very creative in astronomical instruments. Although there are many defects and mistakes in ancient Greek astronomy, compared with other ancient civilizations, it is the most theoretical and complete system, and its calculation method has reached the peak of ancient times. It had a far-reaching impact on later astronomy. Mathematics is different from other ancient civilizations that pay attention to practicality. Ancient Greece attached great importance to the theory and research of mathematics. The Pythagorean school (about 560 BC ~ 480 BC) and the wise school made outstanding contributions to mathematics in Athens. The most famous achievements of the former are the proof of Pythagorean Theorem (called Pythagorean Theorem in the West) and the discovery of irrational number root number 2; The latter put forward three famous geometric drawing problems, which attracted countless mathematicians at that time and later to study hard. It was not until modern times that these pictures proved impossible. However, mathematicians have made many theoretical achievements in the research process, such as the discovery of quadratic curve and the mathematical proof of exhaustive method. The highest achievement of ancient Greek mathematics is embodied in Euclid's immortal work "Elements of Geometry" in Alexandria (about 323 ~ 235 BC). This book systematically sorts out and summarizes the mathematical achievements of predecessors by axiomatic method, that is, starting from several simple axioms, 467 theorems are deduced through strict deductive logic, thus forming a complete theoretical system of elementary geometry knowledge. The Elements of Geometry played an important role in demonstrating the development of ancient Greek science and later western learning. The conic curve written by Apolloni (about 262 BC-262 BC 190), who was contemporary with Euclid, was also an outstanding mathematical work in ancient Greece. He used a plane truncated cone to get all kinds of quadratic curves. Ellipse, parabola and hyperbola were all named by him. At the same time, Archimedes (about 287 BC ~ 2 BC12 years) worked out the method of finding the area and volume of sphere, the area of arch and the area surrounded by parabola and spiral. He solved many difficult problems by exhaustive method, and also solved the quadratic equation of one variable by conic method. Physics. Scholars in ancient Greece also paid close attention to many physical phenomena and made many important discoveries. If you notice the phenomenon that magnets attract iron, know that "wind is a kind of airflow", explain the reason why rainbows appear, realize that sound makes the air vibrate, and so on. Pythagoras school studied the relationship between the length of strings and melody, and found that in order to make the tone harmonious, the length of strings must be a simple integer ratio. Aristotle (384 ~ 322 BC), a famous scholar in Athens, wrote the world's earliest mechanical monograph Physics. He believes that the natural motion of objects on the earth is heavy downward and light upward. To change this natural state, we must rely on external forces. Regarding free fall, he concluded that a heavier object falls faster because it has more power to leave the medium. Aristotle's research on physics is groundless and speculative, so most of his conclusions are incorrect. It was not until the birth of modern mechanics that his mistakes were corrected. Archimedes of Alexandria was not only a mathematician, but also the greatest physicist in ancient Greece, and was praised as the "father of mechanics" by later generations. His series of research achievements in statics, such as proving the lever principle by logical methods and giving mathematical expressions, discovering the law of floating bodies, and proposing the calculation method of the center of gravity of objects, reached the highest level in the world at that time. He also invented many machines, including complex production tools and weapons, such as spiral water pumps and trebuchets. Archimedes' contribution lies not only in his scientific and technological achievements, but also in his scientific research methods. He not only attached importance to logical argumentation and mathematical calculation, but also to observation and experiment, which set a good example for later modern scientific research. The research achievements in optics were first promoted by Euclid. His two books, Optics and On Mirrors, are regarded as the earliest optical monographs. Biology and medicine. Ancient Greek scholars also observed and explored life phenomena. For example, some people put forward the view that "man is changed from a fish because he is like a fish in the embryo", which is a primitive idea of biological evolution. Aristotle was an ancient Greek scholar who made the greatest contribution to biology. He pioneered the methods of anatomy and observation in the history of biology. He recorded nearly 500 kinds of animals, dissected 50 of them personally, and established 8 classification methods according to the differences of morphology, embryo and anatomy. The medical knowledge of ancient Greece spread from Egypt and the two river basins, and professional doctors appeared in the 5th century BC. Alkman of Pythagoras School (6th century BC to 5th century BC) is known as "the father of medicine". By dissecting the human body, he discovered the optic nerve and the Euclidean canal connecting the ear and the mouth, and realized that the brain is an organ of feeling and thinking. Hippocrates (about 460 ~ 377 BC) was the most famous doctor in ancient Greece. His medical theory "four body fluids theory" holds that the human body contains yellow bile, black bile, blood and mucus. If the four body fluids are coordinated, people will be healthy, and if they are out of balance, diseases will occur. He described many internal and surgical diseases and their treatments, and made detailed clinical records at the earliest time in medical history. Hippocrates attached great importance to medical ethics, and still retains his oath of doctor. Handicraft technology. Limited by geographical conditions, local agriculture in Greece is underdeveloped. Olives and grapes are mainly planted, and handicrafts and commercial activities occupy an important position. Athens is the most famous industrial and commercial center. Pottery, grass, oil, wine, shipbuilding, furniture manufacturing, etc. It was the main handicraft industry in ancient Greece. Each industry has a fine division of labor, reflecting its technological progress. Among them, shipbuilding technology is quite advanced. In the 5th century BC, ordinary merchant ships reached 250 tons, and large warships with both oars and sails could be built. Many stone buildings in ancient Greece still have remains. For example, the Temple of Athena, which was built in the 5th century BC, was made of white marble. The upper deck of the terrace covers an area of 2,800 square meters, surrounded by 46 cloisters with a height of 10. A 4-meter cylinder. Alexandria was the most magnificent city in the world at that time. Its two central avenues, north-south and east-west, are 90 meters wide. In 279 BC, a lighthouse was built in the port, with a tower height of 120 meters. The lights on the tower can be seen by ships 60 miles away. All these show the superb architectural skills of the ancient Greeks. The ancient Greeks introduced iron smelting technology from West Asia earlier, and there were iron tools from 16 BC to 12 BC. By the 9th century BC to the 6th century BC, iron tools had been widely used, and people had mastered the techniques of throwing iron, welding, forging iron and carburizing to make steel. (IV) Agriculture, industry and primitive science in ancient Rome In the late 7th century BC, the ancient Romans on the Italian peninsula established slave city-states. In the 2nd-6th century BC, the Romans conquered the Ptolemaic dynasty in Macedonia and Greece and became a great empire across Europe, Asia and Africa. The Roman Empire reached its peak in the1~ 2nd century. It declined in the 3rd century and split into two parts in 395. In 476, West Rome was destroyed by the Germans in the north, which marked the end of the slavery society in Europe. Eastern Rome evolved into a feudal Byzantine empire. The rulers of ancient Rome were busy attacking and dealing with the huge government affairs of the huge empire for many years, and paid little attention to the original scientific theories and academic problems. 1~ In the 2nd century, the Roman Empire was very prosperous economically and made considerable achievements in technology. But in the original scientific theory, the Romans were much inferior to the ancient Greeks. Ignoring theoretical thinking and emphasizing practical application interrupted the scientific research tradition of ancient Greece during the Roman Empire. The primitive science of ancient Rome. After the Romans conquered Greek territory, the scientific activities of some scholars continued. So in the early Roman Empire, there were still some scientific achievements in the aftermath of ancient Greek culture. (1) Ptolemy's astronomical masterpiece. Ptolemy (about 85 ~ 168) was a scientist who lived in Alexandria during Roman rule. He is the successor and master of ancient Greek astronomy. He added a circular orbit to the cosmological model of "this circle is even a wheel" put forward by Hipparchus's geocentric theory, and built a complex model of 80 circles and even wheels. Ptolemy's system is very consistent with the actual observation results, so it has been used by western astronomical circles for more than 1000 years, and it was not replaced until modern Grinini proposed Heliocentrism. Ptolemy's "Astronomical Masterpiece" became a masterpiece in the history of astronomy, and was later translated by Arabs and renamed "The Great Theory". Ptolemy also made achievements in mathematics, and he proved many spherical trigonometric theorems related to astronomical calculation. He also wrote eight volumes of Geography. (2) the natural history of Pliny the elder. Pliny the elder (23 ~ 79) is a Roman scholar, who has written a lot in his life, the most famous of which is the 37-volume magnum opus Natural History. This book includes many contents, such as astronomy, geography, biology, medicine, practical arts and crafts, etc. It is an encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. Natural History is actually a compilation of excerpts from some ancient Greek works, and Pliny Sr. read more than 2,000 works for this purpose. Although the book is not innovative academically, it preserves a large number of ancient materials, reflecting people's mastery of scientific and technological knowledge at that time, so it also has its significance in the history of science and technology. (3) Galen's "Three Reiki Theory". As a practical subject, medicine was paid more attention in ancient Rome. Doctors in Rome inherited the medical tradition of ancient Greece and made great progress in some aspects, such as surgery and pharmacology. The most famous doctor in ancient Rome was Galen (129 ~ 199). He practiced medicine for many years and later became the doctor of the Roman emperor. He founded the "three-aura theory" to explain the physiological process of human body: food nutrition is mixed with "natural aura" after the liver becomes crimson venous blood, which pushes it to flow to the whole body through the right vein of the heart and then back to the heart from the original road; Part of the blood will flow from the right side of the heart to the left side through the small hole in the diaphragm, then flow through the lungs to contact with the air, and then turn into bright red arterial blood, pushing the arterial blood to flow to the whole body along the artery and return to the heart from the original road; The "vitality gas field" in the arterial blood flowing through the brain becomes the "soul gas field", which is transmitted from the nervous system to the whole body and dominates the feeling and movement of the human body. Galen's "Three Reiki Theory" is mostly speculative and contains many fallacies, but after all, it is a relatively systematic theory about human physiological processes. It has long been regarded as an authoritative medical theory in the west, and it was not replaced until the establishment of blood circulation theory in17th century. Galen wrote 13 1 works, of which 87 have been handed down to this day. The technology of ancient Rome. Ancient Greece attached importance to theoretical research, but scholars never regarded technology as knowledge. In ancient Rome, which despised pure theory and attached importance to technology, some scholars systematically studied technology and wrote some valuable technical monographs. (1) Cato on agriculture. Agriculture in the Italian peninsula was developed, and the agricultural technology of the Romans was very advanced at that time. Former supervisor Cato (234 ~ 149 BC) wrote On Agriculture, which is regarded as the earliest agricultural work in the West. The book contains a lot of agricultural production technology and agronomy knowledge, as well as the content of farm management. Later Varo (BC 165438+ BC 06 ~ 27) also wrote On Agriculture, which also had a certain position in the history of agronomy. (2) Vitruwei's On Architecture. After Rome became a powerful country, various buildings were built, and the superb architectural technology at that time can be seen from many relics that still exist today. For example, the Colosseum in Rome is oval in plane, with the length and diameter of 188m and 156m respectively, and the external wall is 48.5m high, which can accommodate 50,000-80,000 spectators. The waterway architecture in ancient Rome was also a huge and spectacular project. Rome, the capital, has nine waterways with a total length of more than 90 kilometers. The Romans also built many roads and bridges on the vast territory of the empire, forming a transportation network extending in all directions, which is called "all roads lead to Rome". Vitruvius (BC 1 century) was a famous architect in ancient Rome. He summed up the architectural experience since ancient Greece and wrote the world's first architectural monograph "On Architectural Team", which covers the general theory of architecture, design principles, education and construction of architects. This book has a profound influence on western architecture. Frantinou, a former waterway engineering official, has also written several engineering works. (3) Heron's technological inventions. Heron (A.D. 1 century) was a famous scholar and engineer in the early Roman Empire. He made many inventions and wrote many works. He made a complicated pulley system, blower, odometer, siphon, calibrator and other mechanical devices. He also invented the steam recoil ball as the emperor's toy. This is the earliest technical device to convert thermal energy into mechanical energy, and it is the embryonic form of modern steam turbine and modern steam injection power, but it has not been applied in practice. Helen is also good at math. He wrote a review on geometric principles and proved some theorems. The formula s = √ s (s-a) (s-c) (s-c) for finding the area of a triangle (A, B, C are the lengths of three sides, and S is half the circumference) was first calculated by Heron. The ancient Greeks and Romans created the highest scientific and technological achievements in the western slave society. These achievements have become the source of western scientific and technological civilization. The ancient Greeks paid attention to the theoretical exploration of nature, and initially applied the scientific research method of combining logical reasoning, mathematical operation and observation experiment. The ancient Romans paid attention to the practical application of scientific knowledge and summarized technical problems theoretically. These fine traditions have played a very important role in inspiring and demonstrating the emergence and development of modern science and technology.