/kloc-Before the middle of the 8th century, there were only the hunting gardens of emperors (equivalent to the entrance to Zhou Wenwang in China), royal camps, castle gardens of princes or nobles, villas of nobles, gardens of temples, and private gardens of rich people in Europe and America. The sacred forests of hunting parks and temples are natural or semi-natural. The rest are handmade. Therefore, gardens must be built artificially. /kloc-The natural scenery in Europe before the 0/8th century can only be called parks. This park is completely different from later city parks and public parks. The latter is artificially built, while the former is natural. There were many types of artificial gardens at that time:
(1) Fruit Garden, Kitchen Garden and Herb Garden, which are gardening gardens, mainly have practical functions such as fruits, vegetables and herbs, and cannot be included in the category of garden art..
(2) Topiau: Garden: Fan Park (maze, maze), knot gardens and flower beds (mainly a group of flower beds with many knot gardens and carpets). The layout and landscaping of these gardens are symmetrical, which can be regarded as a geometric art work.
(3) Terraee Garden: It is a large garden on the Italian hillside and a geometric garden built on the trapezoidal terrace on the hillside. This kind of gardens can be classified as garden art types.
(4) Plane Geometry T: Gardens: The Palace of Versailles designed by Le Nott, a suburb of Paris, France, is a "model" of this kind of large-scale garden art and the peak of western geometric garden art.
Among the gardens in this period, the first category is practical gardens, without artistic design. It was built by the gardener or the owner himself, and it was very small. The second category is medium-sized, without artistic design and symmetry axis. In some cases, it is equipped with pools, fountains, sculptures or flower stands, pavilions and pavilions. Generally arranged in the periphery of villas and residential buildings, the garden is not the main body but the body, which is an artistic creation, but not an artistic creation. The third category is large-scale theme gardens, including stepped open-altar gardens and plane geometric gardens like Versailles, covering an area of nearly 10,000 mu (about 666hm2), which is the representative of western garden art. At that time, there was no professional division of labor in garden design, construction and management, and all of them were completed by a gardener. Although the Palace of Versailles covers an area of nearly 10,000 mu, the artificially built part does not exceed 4,000 mu (about 266hm2), and the Yuanmingyuan in China is only 5,000 mu (about 333hm2). Because the area is not large, it can cope even without ecological knowledge. Moreover, western ecology had not yet come out at that time.
In short, the gardens of that period, except for a few theme gardens, were mostly just extensions and extensions of buildings, which were outdoor green buildings. The geometric modeling gardens in the west are diametrically opposed to the natural landscape gardens in China. Because big cities have not yet appeared, there is no "public garden" (city garden) for urban residents to enjoy. Le Nathai, the main planner of the Palace of Versailles in France, studied as a court painter at first, and then worked as an assistant gardener in the court with his father (court gardener), so he had the opportunity to study gardening and gardening in the court for many years. At that time, it was called "the gardener of kings, the king of gardeners". At that time, even a master gardener like Lenatai had no chance to engage in the planning of urban parks, garden cities, urban garden green space systems or scenic spots with an area of more than tens of thousands of acres.
1.2 gardening period
/kloc-in the middle of the 0/8th century, the industrial revolution took place in Europe, followed by urbanization. City residents are tired of carefully carved, trimmed and shaped geometric gardens, which have symmetrical axes and are boring and expensive. At the same time, China's vibrant natural landscape gardens were introduced to Europe through Wang Zhicheng, a painter and French missionary during the Qianlong period, which shocked the whole European garden community, so that 18 century later, the plastic geometric gardens in Britain almost disappeared.
(1) Humphrey Repton (? Humphrey Repton was the first gardener in England. He put forward the terms "landscape gardening" and "landscape gardener". He once said: "Only by combining the talents of landscape painters and gardeners can we achieve the complete achievements of garden art."
(2) The emergence of English landscape school.
William Kent, an early British natural landscape gardener, abandoned geometric gardens and replaced them with natural landscape gardens. He said, "Nature hates straight lines." He destroyed all the straight roads left by his predecessors, and used China's method of "My road has a winding path and passes through a sheltered depression" to transform it. His student L Brown (17 15- 1783) is also very famous in Britain. Blank transformed all the Italian geometric gardens left over from history into "natural landscape gardens", and people called him "omnipotent Blank". Humphrey Repton, the successor of Blanc, wrote in his work 1806: "Stone platforms surrounded by railings, magnificent stone steps, arches and artificial caves, towering trimmed tree walls, niches and retreating parts are all decorated with statues, ... Italian geometric gardens, ... what snow claws, what broken walls and abandoned sites are all gone!" Unfortunately, these geometric gardens destroyed by British landscape architects at the end of 18 are now copied by some modern landscape architects and sold as postmodern gardens. Therefore, the romantic natural landscape gardens in Britain came into being. Although it was later opposed by other gardeners, the natural landscape gardens in Britain have passed the long-term test of history and will flourish.
Special attention should be paid to children's gardens that were popular in Europe for centuries before18th century. European gardeners were shocked by the natural landscape schools in China, and abandoned or transformed the original geometric gardens.
2 after the industrial revolution and urbanization, the development of western landscape architecture discipline
2. 1 olmsted and Landscape Architecture
Professor M. Laurie of the School of Environmental Planning and Design at the University of California, Berkeley, wrote in his book Introduction to Landscape Architecture: "When the term landscape architecture (hereinafter referred to as L.A.) is mentioned, it is a confusing problem, and professionals are often troubled because their modern professional concepts are misunderstood by society. Therefore, it is often explained by landscape gardening, but terms such as site planning, urban design and environmental planning are often used to clarify the broad meaning and working depth of the term L.A. "This puzzling term: landscape architecture is a new term coined by olmsted, the father of American landscape architects, in 1858. Olmsted runs a farm and works in civil engineering technology. He has not received professional training in Los Angeles. He has personally designed the National Capital Park, new york Central Park, Boston Cemetery and the campus of Michigan State University in downtown Washington. He has designed urban parks, private parks, urban planning and road traffic network planning, land use planning, residential area planning and the planning of Yosemlte National Park (equivalent to nature reserves) in Yue Se with an area of over 3000km2, the garden green space system in Boston and Harvard University. He called all the different jobs he had done "landscape architecture". So Professor Laurie said, "No wonder what people do for landscape architecture? Caused ideological confusion. "
2.2 IFLA and Landscape Architecture
The United States is the country with the fastest industrialization development in the world. As early as 1789, Washington was elected as the first president. Although he was sworn in in new york, he deeply felt that new york, Chicago, Philadelphia and other American megacities were no longer suitable as ideal production, living and living environments for residents, so he gave up new york and Philadelphia and made Washington, D.C. the capital (the builder of modern ideal city in China today) 180 1 year, and the capital moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C. ..
1945, the American atomic bomb exploded in Hiroshima, Japan, and the harm of nuclear pollution spread all over the world. Landscape architecture is a new discipline and a new specialty under the situation of the above-mentioned increasingly serious human environmental crisis. At that time, landscape architects from developed countries met many times and planned to set up an international peer association for L.A., a new discipline, to promote the development of this new discipline. Finally, in September of 1948, the inaugural meeting of this international academic group was held in Cambridge, England, and the international organization was named "International Federation". F landscape architect "(abbreviated as" IFLA "). According to the articles of association, this is a non-political and non-profit international academic group. So far, academic groups from more than 50 countries have joined the Federation. The Federation has three branches in Paris, France. IFLA only accepts associations representing one country as group members and directors. If the society in this country does not join the group membership, IFLA will choose an accomplished scholar in this country as the individual director. For some reasons, the Chinese Society of Landscape Architecture failed to join IFLA, so the author has been a personal director of IFLA since 1983.
As for the discipline and occupation of landscape architecture in the 20th century, IFLA stipulated in its articles of association: "In view of the long-term health, happiness and happiness of people all over the world, it is based on the harmony between people and their living environment and the wise use of resources; The growing population and the rapid development of scientific and technological capabilities have led to the continuous growth of people's social, economic and material needs for resources! In order to meet the growing demand for resources without deteriorating the environment and wasting resources, we need a kind of expertise, skills and experience closely related to the relationship between natural systems, the evolution of nature and the development of human society. These specialized and qualified knowledge, skills and experience are all found in the practice of landscape architecture. " This is the modern concept of landscape architecture as a discipline and specialty.
2.3 International Academic Conference on Geographical Planning Education and Landscape Planning
1986 In March, the international academic conference on geological planning education was held in the Graduate School of Design, Harvard University. N Education For Landscape Planning) clearly expounds the meaning of landscape planning discipline: "This is a multidisciplinary comprehensive science, and its key areas involve land use, natural resource management, development and change of agricultural areas, earth ecology and the landscape of towns and metropolises." This large-scale international academic conference is jointly organized by the United Nations Union for Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Exxon Education Foundation and Harvard University Graduate School of Design. The conference invited 88 internationally renowned scholars from 26 countries to participate in the discussion, among which 19 scholars were invited to give academic reports, and the author was one of them. In the invitation letter issued by the meeting, the author clearly expounded the meaning of landscape planning discipline. In the paper report of this academic conference on land planning education, the author also selected two international land planning education models, and the author is one of them. According to the meaning of landscape planning expounded in this meeting, the author translated it into "land planning", which is considered to be the specific work of this industry, and the most modern concept of this discipline has been extended to "surface planning". Therefore, in the18th century, it was ok for people to regard landscape planning as "landscape planning", but in the 2 1 century, the translation would be inaccurate and it would be difficult to connect with international academic circles.
3 Before industrial revolution in europe, the development of gardening art in China.
3. 1 China's classical garden art and the classical philosophy of the relationship between man and land are models of human culture.
Sir G.A. Jellicoe, the first president and lifelong honorary president of the International Federation of Land Planning and Landscape Architects (IFLA), published the paper "Exploration of the Garden of Eden" in the annual report 1985/86 1986 (IFLA Annual Report 1985 ~ 1986). Especially China, whose unique culture grew from her own land and later spread to Japan. By the middle of18th century, it had a great influence on the whole of Europe. "(At that time, it was the period when urbanization began to spread after the industrial revolution) Jerek added:" This is an art, which was conceived on the basis of the following "philosophical thoughts", namely: "Man is only a part of the organic part of nature (man is not the master of nature), and man is just like nature itself. His subordination to nature will not change until he reaches his limit. " What is really exciting is the miracle of nature, for example, the showers in the storm, the trees dancing with the wind and the roaring waterfalls, which make us calm the flow of life and stir up waves. Another example is that China literati planted plantains in their gardens in order to listen to the melody of rain beating plantains. This sensitivity to natural beauty originated in China or Kouben Teahouse, which westerners can't understand. "
3.2 China is the first country in the world to build a big garden in the center of the capital.
In ancient civilizations all over the world, except China, from Egypt, Babylonia, Greece, India to the Roman Empire, there were generally no gardens in city centers, and there were few trees and gardens in palaces and houses in cities. Venice, Italy, which we see now, is actually a stone city with dense buildings. The squares in the city are all paved with stones, and there are no grass or trees. The Vecehio Palace in Florence, Italy, and the Rome Municipal Square designed by Michelangelo all have sculptures and fountains, but there are no trees and flowers. The square in front of St. Peter's Cathedral in Vatican is also paved with granite, and there are no trees. Unfortunately, Canberra, the capital of Australia, the most ideal garden city today, still transplanted a St. Peter's Square in front of the National High Court. How stubborn this habit of bottled old wine is! )。 These squares are the heat source of urban heat island effect, which will worsen the comfortable urban microclimate.
China is the first country in the world (at least 100 BC) to build large gardens in cities or urban centers. Now the urban construction of developed countries all over the world is learning from China; However, in our urban construction, a kind of granite square with water spray sculpture is popular, and there are no big trees, which makes the city a heat island, and flaunts this ancient and backward design as a new trend of modernization.
In the center of China Imperial City, there used to be a large-scale natural landscape garden, which is still preserved today. It is the West Garden of the Yuan Dynasty, and it is called the Western Sea Palace. Xiyuan covers an area of nearly 2,000 mu (about 1.33 hm2), which is equivalent to today's Beihai and Zhonghai. The water surface is called Taiye Pool, the head of the pool is called Penglai Mountain, and the Guanghan Palace is built on it. Kyle Poirot, an Italian traveler in the 0/3rd century AD/KLOC, met the Mongolian emperor here, and he marveled that the customs officer was simply a fairy palace.
In addition to the West Garden, there is an imperial garden in the north of Otani, and a front garden and a back garden in the west of the West Garden. The garden area accounts for nearly 40% of the total land area of Miyagi Prefecture. 1420, the Ming Dynasty built the Forbidden City and the Imperial City in Beijing. In the Yuan Dynasty, the West Garden expanded southward to the South China Sea, becoming the "Three Seas", with a total area of nearly 3,000 mu (about 200hm2), about twice the area of the Forbidden City. The garden area of China Capital Center has greatly exceeded the square land, which is a progressive phenomenon. After urbanization, western countries followed China's example and built big gardens in the center of metropolis. For example, Manhattan, new york, USA has built a 5,000-mu (about 333hm2) Central Park, and Washington, D.C. has built a 36,000-mu (about 2400hm2) Capital Park. Nearly 20,000 mu (about 1.333 hm2) of gardens have been built in Canberra, the capital of Australia.
3.3 Hangzhou and West Lake in China are the earliest and most beautiful garden cities in the world.
Garden city is the highest ideal of human settlements. The word garden city was put forward by westerners. Why did they put forward this term? Because they have no garden city. If there are no garden cities in other countries in the world, then such a new term cannot be coined. /kloc-In the 20th century, there was no second country in the world with the earliest, most beautiful and only garden city in the world-Hangzhou (Lin 'an), the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty in China, which was praised as "the most beautiful and luxurious city" by Kyle Poirot.
During the Renaissance, the Italian painter Leonardo da Vinci himself had never been to Hangzhou and West Lake, but he saw a romantic description of Hangzhou and West Lake in Kelpolo, so he put forward the idea of a garden city: every household should have a garden with irrigation facilities. /kloc-in the 0/8th century, Washington, the first president of the United States, put forward the ideal of building the capital into a landscape garden city consisting of many gardens or a city built in natural scenic spots. After that, there was a big garden in the center of Washington, which was built according to his proposal.
/kloc-in the 9th century, revolutionary instructors Marx and Engels put forward new contents of garden city to eliminate the differences between urban and rural areas and between workers and peasants. According to the concept of garden city put forward by the west before19th century, when Bai Juyi was appointed as the secretariat of Hangzhou in the Tang Dynasty (822-824) in the 9th century, Hangzhou had fully met the requirements of garden city.
In the 28th year of Shaoxing in the Southern Song Dynasty (A.D. 1 158), Fenghuang Mountain, Ouchi and Zhoujiuli were built in the southeast of West Lake. It is the capital of China-the political center of the Southern Song Dynasty-the Forbidden City in Lin 'an. At that time, the capital city had begun to evacuate the population, satellite city 16, Qianhe in the south of Lin' an capital city and West Lake in the north. The waterway goes directly from Qianjiang to Lingyin. The West Lake covers an area of more than 8,600 mu, about 5.68 square kilometers. There are big islands and isolated hills in the lake, Bai Causeway in Su Causeway, and islands built in the lake. There are three pools, silver moon, Zhou Xiaoying and Hu Xinting, which divide the West Lake into five parts: Outer Lake, North Lihu Lake, West Lihu Lake, Moon Lake and Xiaonan Lake. The three islands in the lake echoed with the three islands in Penglai in the Warring States period, and inherited the tradition of royal garden art in the Imperial Fairy Palace since Qin and Han Dynasties. During the Southern Song Dynasty, the "Ten Scenes of West Lake" in Hangzhou was a landscape layout of a world garden city. The combination of static spatial layout and dynamic sequential layout forms an artistic system of garden layout around the center of the lake.
This "space and sequence layout art garden system" of the Ten Scenery of West Lake is not only the birthplace of China garden art, but also the first and model of the world garden city space and sequence layout garden art system. Regarding her artistic achievements, an official of the Japanese Embassy and Consulate in Hangzhou in the Ming Dynasty wrote such a poem: "When I first saw this painting, I didn't believe there was such a lake on the earth; "When I get to this lake, I still think this plan will take time!" (to the effect).
3.4 China is the first country in the world to create gardens based on "nature".
The earliest garden design in the world is not only found in Egypt, Babylon and Greece, but also in China. The imperial fairy palaces left over from the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties in China, such as Qionghua Island and Tuancheng in Beihai, Pengdao Yaotai in Yuanmingyuan and Huanglong Temple in Summer Palace, are also symmetrical in construction and planting. However, as early as China BC 138, Yuan Guanghan, a rich man in Maoling, had already adopted natural landscape gardening techniques in his private gardens. The details of his garden will be described below. This kind of "natural landscape school" garden is exactly what urban residents all over the world yearn for and dream of entering a highly urbanized modern metropolis.
3.5 China is the first country in the world where the industry, specialty and discipline of "horticulture" appeared.
The Roman Empire reached its heyday in 1 17, and Hadrian the Great began to build Hadrian villas in the suburbs of the city. In the Middle Ages, many monasteries in the suburbs of Italian cities began to plant trees and flowers, but they were small and practical herb gardens and kitchen gardens. It was not until the Italian Renaissance that many villa gardens appeared in the suburbs of Europe, which were called "terrace gardens" with geometric shapes. That was14 ~16th century. The real garden art in Europe began in the Renaissance of15th century. Later, he entered the plane geometry garden in Lenotre, France. However, in China BC 138, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty had built a "Shanglin Garden" with 300 Li Fiona Fang and 70 detached palaces, where exotic flowers and plants were planted and various animals were raised.
At that time, Yuan Guanghan, a wealthy businessman in Maoling, had also built a natural garden with four miles in the east, four miles in the south and five miles in the north, with stones as mountains and more than ten feet high, rapids and dangerous beaches, rare birds and animals, and exotic flowers and grasses. It happened in 138 BC, and it is the earliest natural garden in the world. The scale of this private garden is much more magnificent than that of the Royal Hadrian Villa of the Roman Empire more than 250 years later. Therefore, it was impossible for China not to have this gardening profession at that time. The emergence of horticulture in China was earlier than that in Europe 1400 years ago.
At present, there are two earliest theoretical works on the system of gardening art in the world: Zuo Tingji (written at the end of Japanese Megamycetes 165438) and Yuanye in China in the Ming Dynasty (written at 1634). However, at the end of 1 1, the theory of Japanese gardening art obviously inherited China's theory of gardening art since Han and Tang Dynasties.
4. National understanding of the meaning of landscape architecture.
Because the political, economic and productivity levels are at different stages of development. Different countries have different meanings to the discipline of landscape architecture at different stages of development.
/kloc-in 0/858, olmsted, an American, and Walker, an architect, signed the land on the general plan of new york Central Park designed by them. . The name of the ape building. 1899, American Association of Landscape Architects (ASLA) was established in the United States. 1900 Harvard University opened a course on landscape architecture. Seven years later, the urban design course of Harvard University was separated from the landscape architecture course. Therefore, the surface planning discipline is more macroscopic and broader than the urban design discipline. The subject of urban design is more macroscopic and broader than architecture. Although Harvard established the Department of Architecture a long time ago, the nature of the discipline cannot change its connotation because of its establishment time.
Some people in our country put forward the views of "big building" and generalized architecture, and architecture cannot include the protection planning of natural ecosystem. This academic view can't be in line with international standards. The two most outstanding garden cities in the contemporary world were designed by landscape architects: downtown Washington and National Capital Park were designed by landscape architect olmsted; Canberra, Australia's garden city, was designed by Griffin, a landscape architect in Chicago, USA.
Patrick Geddes. It is the first juicer to adopt the name of Los Angeles in Britain. 1907, as a landscape architect in Scotland. After World War II, this discipline has developed rapidly, and its work field has become larger and larger, including the planning, expansion and reconstruction of new towns, roads and highways, national natural parks, reservoir construction, forest, mining areas and industrial zone reconstruction.
In Germany, in 1930s, this industry was engaged in the planning of national expressway system.
This industry in the Netherlands is also engaged in the construction of gardens and green spaces around the sea, and now it is also engaged in urban transformation.
In Scandinavia, this industry is still playing an active role in creating new welfare communities. 198 1 year, China sent a delegation of national landscape experts to the United States to inspect the "national park system" and urban landscape green space. As an expert member of the national landscape architecture expert delegation, the author found that the national conditions, systems and economic development levels of China and the United States are quite different. In China, landscape architecture is mainly engaged in the following two tasks: first, protecting and planning national and local scenic spots, national nature reserves, national forests, grasslands, wetlands, rivers and lakes, beaches, islands and other primitive areas; Second, urban garden green space system, urban and residential garden green space design, large parks and suburban parks design, industrial and mining, institutions, hospitals, schools, suburban scenic spots, tourism and leisure resorts and other garden green spaces are not included. The system is also quite special, for example, the urban construction department of the Ministry of Construction has a garden department and a garden department; All provincial construction departments have garden offices: all large and medium-sized cities have garden bureaus or garden offices; China's "China Society of Landscape Architects" and "the first class society" were also named "China Society of Landscape Architecture"; The professional names of landscape architecture that are not placed in universities are also translated into "landscape architecture" and "landscape architecture planning and design" majors or industries. Some people want to translate the compound word Landscape Architecture into two words, L. (landscape) and A. (architecture), so it becomes "landscape architecture", which will make a large number of comrades who are not familiar with English mistakenly think that this is a brand-new subject that has never appeared before. So since it is called landscape architecture, it must be a new building, and architects who have not studied botany or horticulture should be invited to undertake this work. The author thinks that such translation will inevitably lead to more confusion. Others want to change the concept of "garden city", which is well understood all over the world, into an ecological city or a forest city; The bland urban garden green space system has been replaced by new terms that confuse water and grass, such as urban open space, urban ecosystem, urban environmental art and urban forestry. Some people think that this is innovation and modernization.
The author thinks that the professional names and terms approved by the authoritative departments of the state and implemented for many years should not be arbitrarily unconventional for some other reasons, resulting in confusion: it is important to innovate in practical work, not to renovate terms every day.
The most advanced education in Los Angeles in the world is the United States, where about 60 universities have departments or majors in Los Angeles ... followed by Japan, where more than 40 universities have departments or majors in Los Angeles. Japanese scholars know, of course, that the field of Los Angeles has expanded to the field of earth surface planning. But they still translate the most modern landscape architecture discipline into landscape architecture. However, from ]994, the Journal of Landscape Architecture was changed to the Study of Los Angeles. This is a direct connection between traditional horticultural terms and modern international terms L.A. in English.
The author thinks that under the current level of economic and technological development in China, the discipline of landscape architecture should be translated into "landscape architecture" or "landscape architecture planning and design" in China, or directly in English L.A. to avoid disputes.