Chinese characters (Pinyin: Hànzì, phonetic symbols: ㄏㄢˋ ㄗˋ), also known as Chinese characters, Chinese characters, square characters, are morpheme-syllabic characters of ideographic characters. Hanzi is the writing script for Chinese, and is also used to write Japanese, Korean/Korean and other languages. It is a script widely used in the Chinese character cultural circle. It is also the only highly developed morpheme script still widely used in the world.

In the broad sense, Chinese characters refer to characters ranging from oracle bone inscriptions, large seal scripts, bronze inscriptions, Zhou scripts, small seal scripts, to official script, cursive script, regular script (and derived running script), etc. In the narrow sense, it refers to Chinese characters with block letters as the standard writing method. It is also a modern Chinese character commonly used today. Chinese characters were invented, created and improved by the Chinese people in ancient times. The current exact history can be traced back to the oracle bone inscriptions, Zhou inscriptions and bronze inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty around 1300 BC. From the small seal script in the Qin Dynasty, it developed to the Libian Dynasty in the Han Dynasty, and then to the regular script in the Tang Dynasty, which became the standard handwriting font used today - block script.

Chinese characters are the longest continuously used script so far, and they are also the only scripts among the major writing systems in ancient times that have been passed down to this day. Chinese characters have been the main official script in all dynasties of China. Chinese characters have developed to a highly complete level in ancient times. They are not only used in China, but also served as the only international communication script in East Asia for a long time. Before the 20th century, they were the official written standard scripts of Japan, the Korean Peninsula, Vietnam, Ryukyu and other countries. , all East Asian countries have created Chinese characters on their own to a certain extent.

Chinese characters are phonetic characters, not pinyin characters. Symbols of the ideographic system are used to represent Chinese words or morphemes.

A Chinese character usually represents a word or a morpheme in Chinese, which results in the unity of pronunciation, form, and meaning. Chinese characters are square-shaped characters made up of strokes, so they are also called square characters. For example, "Che", "Shang", "Ming", etc., "Che", "Shang" and "Ming" use the shape of the character to directly express the meaning of the word in the language; "Question" can express both the meaning and the sound, and "Men" expresses the sound. "mouth" expresses meaning.

After thousands of years of evolution, Chinese characters have gradually formed the "Seven Chinese Characters", namely: oracle bone inscriptions, bronze inscriptions, seal script, official script, cursive script, regular script, and running script.

Origin

Archaeological Discovery

The Chinese archaeological community has successively released a series of unearthed materials that are earlier than the Yin Ruins oracle bone inscriptions and related to the origin of writing. The Jiahu engraved talisman has been measured by carbon 14 physics and has a history of about 7762 years ago (±128 years); there are also Shuangdun engraved talisman from 7,000 years ago, Banpo pottery talisman from 6,000 years ago, and Qingqing talisman from more than 5,000 years ago. There are glyphs carved from the Dun Site, characters from the Zhuangqiao Tomb Site with hyphenated sentences, symbols of pottery statues in Dawenkou, Zhu inscriptions from the Taosi Site in the Yao and Shun era, and water scripts from Xia Xu. The early bone inscriptions were a rich writing system, while the later ones were in the initial mature stage. These archaeological discoveries may be important clues to the origin of Chinese characters, or they may be the different origins of the development of various characters.

In the early 1980s, more complete writing was discovered on pottery excavated from the Xia cultural site in Dengfeng, Henan. This is the earliest written text of a definite era in our country that has been confirmed by scholars so far.

Old Theory

From the ancient legend of Cangjie’s creation of characters to the discovery of oracle bone inscriptions more than 100 years ago, Chinese scholars of all ages have been committed to uncovering the mystery of the origin of Chinese characters. There are five old theories about the origin of Chinese characters, namely the Jiesheng theory, the Bagua theory, the Hetu Luoshu theory, the Cangjie creation theory and the picture theory.

The theory of knotting: "Northern History: The Benji of Wei" says that the ancestors of the Northern Dynasty Wei "hunted as a profession, were simple and simple, and simplified; they did not write words, they just carved wood and knotted ropes." It is recorded Before the emergence of writing, some primitive social tribes used knotting to record events such as wars, hunting, alliances, elections, celebrations, marriages, childbirth, diseases and disasters.

In the past, some scholars also inferred that "written characters were used to rule by knotting ropes in ancient times" in "Book of Changes·Xici". Originated from knotting rope."

Bagua theory: The preface to Kong Anguo's "Shangshu" (a forgery, but very ancient) says: "In ancient times, the Pao Xi family was the king of the world. The government of Sheng was born from these books."

He Tu said: "Yi Xici 1": He produced pictures, Luo produced books, and sages followed them. "He Tu·Jade Edition": Cangjie was the emperor, and he patrolled the south for hunting. He came to the mountain of Yangxu and came to the water of Huluo in Yuan Dynasty. The turtle carried the book, with red armor and green inscriptions, to teach him.

After uncovering the mystery of this theory, it is not difficult to find that its real core is arithmetic, which can be compared with the "Nine Palaces" algorithm. The so-called "Nine Palaces", according to the Chenwei family, are the Eight Diagrams plus the center, combined into nine (the "five" is located in the center, and can also be connected with the five elements); in the eyes of the mathematicians, the numbers are horizontal, vertical, and diagonal. , the number added together is always 15.

Cangjie coined the word: Legend has it that Cangjie was the historian of the Yellow Emperor, who was the leader of the tribal alliance in the ancient Central Plains. As society entered the stage of larger-scale tribal alliances, diplomatic affairs between alliances became increasingly frequent, so there was an urgent need to establish A set of communication symbols shared by all alliances, so the task of collecting and sorting out the shared texts was left to the historian Cangjie.

"Cangjie's theory of character creation" was already popular during the Warring States Period. "Lu Shi Chun Qiu Jun Shou" said: "Cangjie wrote books and Houji did crops." In the Qin and Han Dynasties, this legend became more popular. Xu Shen's "Shuowen Jiezi·Xu" states: "When Cangjie first wrote books, he based them on pictograms.

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Modern scholars believe that a systematic writing tool cannot be completely created by one person. If Cangjie is indeed a person, he should be the organizer or promulgator of writing.

Picture Said: Modern scholars believe that Chinese characters truly originated from original pictures, and the graphics carved on some unearthed cultural relics are likely to be related to writing.

Wang Yunzhi, a doctoral supervisor at Zhengzhou University, believes that it is the earliest carving in China. Symbols appeared at the Jiahu site in Wuyang, Henan, with a history of more than 8,000 years. A comprehensive analysis of these original materials has revealed some clues about the occurrence and development of Chinese characters before the Shang Dynasty writing. However, the situation is not the same. So simple, except for the small materials from the Zhengzhou Shangcheng site and the Xiaoshuangqiao site (more than 10 examples of early Shang Dynasty Zhu Shu and pottery inscriptions have been discovered at this site) that can be directly compared with the Yin Ruins characters, other pre-Shang symbols are They are scattered and have many missing links. Most of the symbols are inconsistent with the characters of the Shang Dynasty.

Wang Yunzhi believes that the formal formation of the Chinese character system should be. In the Central Plains region, Chinese characters are a writing system that originated independently and does not depend on any foreign writing system. However, its origin is not single. It has gone through multiple and long-term development. About the time of entering the Xia era, Based on the experience of extensively absorbing and using early symbols, the ancestors creatively invented a system of written symbols for recording language. At that time, the Chinese character system matured relatively quickly.

It is reported that since then. Judging from the written materials unearthed from archaeological excavations, China already had formal writing at least during the Yu and Xia Dynasties. For example, archaeologists once discovered a flat pottery pot with calligraphy written in calligraphy on a flat pottery pot unearthed from the Tao Temple site in Xiangfen, Shanxi. The character "文". These symbols all belong to the basic configuration of the early writing system. Unfortunately, such unearthed text information is still scarce in Yangshao cultural sites such as the Banpo site about 6,000 years ago. There are more than fifty kinds of engraved symbols on the outer walls of the pottery. They are neatly planned and have certain regularity. They have the characteristics of simple characters and may be the germ of Chinese characters.

More neat and regular graphic inscriptions were found on the pottery from the late Dahankou Culture Site and the Liangzhu Culture Site, about four to five thousand years ago, which are the early evolution of Chinese characters.

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The subsequent evolution of Chinese characters has gone through a long process of thousands of years, and has gone through stages such as oracle bone inscriptions, bronze inscriptions, seal script, official script, regular script, cursive script, and running script. Regular script is commonly used today, but it has not yet been completely finalized.

Chinese characters in the ancient writing stage, the writing before the Han Dynasty, are more vivid.

The writings of the Warring States Period: "The princes are in power and do not rule under the king, and those who harm others will have their books removed." . "The fields are in different acres, the cars are on different tracks, the laws and regulations are different, the clothes are in different systems, the speech is in different sounds, and the characters are in different shapes." "has a strong regional character. Qin characters are the mainstream of the development of Chinese characters. The characters of the Six Kingdoms have great regional differences and do not reflect the development trajectory of Chinese characters. They are tributaries.

Oracle bone inscriptions refer to the oracle bone inscriptions of the Yin Ruins, which are Chinese business characters. In the late Dynasty (14th to 11th century BC), the royal family used it to carve (or write) characters on tortoise shells and animal bones for divination and recording.

About 150,000 pieces of oracle bones and more than 4,500 single characters were discovered. The contents recorded in these oracle bone inscriptions are extremely rich and involve many aspects of social life in the Shang Dynasty, including not only politics, military, culture, social customs, etc., but also science and technology such as astronomy, calendar, and medicine. About 1,500 oracle bone inscriptions have been identified. Judging from individual characters, it already possesses the character creation methods of "pictogram, meaning, phonetic sound, meaning, transfer, and borrowing", showing the unique charm of Chinese characters in the Shang Dynasty and the early Western Zhou Dynasty (about 16 BC to 10 BC). Century) documents based on tortoise shells and animal bones

Bronze inscriptions

Inscriptions refer to the characters engraved on the bronzes of the Yin and Zhou dynasties, also called bells and tripods. In this era, the ritual vessels of bronzes were represented by tripods, and the musical instruments were represented by bells. "Zhongding" is synonymous with bronzes. Therefore, bells and tripods or bronze inscriptions refer to the inscriptions cast or engraved on bronzes.

< p>The so-called bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. China has entered the Bronze Age in the Xia Dynasty, and the smelting of copper and the manufacture of bronze wares were very developed. Because copper was also called gold before the Zhou Dynasty, the inscriptions on the copper wares were called gold. "Bronze inscriptions" or "Jijin inscriptions"; and because this type of bronze has the largest number of characters on bells and tripods, it was also called "Zhongding inscriptions" in the past.

The era of the application of bronze inscriptions dates back to the Shang Dynasty. From the early Dynasty to the Qin Dynasty when the Six Kingdoms were destroyed, the number of characters in bronze inscriptions, according to Rong Geng's "Biography of Inscriptions on the Inscriptions", totaled 3,722, of which 2,420 were identifiable.

The number of words in the inscriptions on the bronzes is also very different. Most of the inscriptions praise the achievements of ancestors and princes, but also record major historical events. For example, the famous Mao Gong Ding has 497 words. , covering a wide range of events, reflecting the social life at that time

Da Zhuan

Da Zhuan began in the late Western Zhou Dynasty and was popular in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. The shape of the glyphs often overlaps. The representative one is the stone drum script that exists today. It was named after the script written by Taishi Zhou during the reign of King Xuan of the Zhou Dynasty. The earliest stone-engraved characters are the ancestors of stone carvings.

Xiaozhuan

Xiaozhuan is also called "Qin Zhuan".

During the Qin Dynasty, Li Si was ordered to unify the script, and this script was Xiaozhuan. Popular in the Qin Dynasty. The shape is relatively long, evenly rounded and neat, and it is derived from the large seal script. Xu Shen of the Eastern Han Dynasty wrote "Shuowen Jiezi·Xu": "The first emperor of Qin conquered the world at the beginning... let alone those who do not agree with Qin Wen." Li Si wrote the "Cangjie Pian", and Zhongche Mansion ordered Zhao Gao to write the "Ai Li Pian". Taishi ordered Hu Wujing to compose the "Erudition Chapter", "all of which were based on the large seal script of Shi Zang, or some minor changes, so-called small seal script." Today, the remaining stones of "Langyatai Stone Carving" and "Taishan Carving Stone" are representative works of small seal script. The small seal script engraved on Qin Quan is said to be the result of Li Si's policy of "writing with the same text and chariots with the same track" and unifying weights and measures after Qin Shihuang unified China. Prime Minister Li Si was responsible for this. Based on the large seal script originally used by the Qin State, Simplify, cancel the variant characters of other six countries, and create a unified writing form of Chinese characters. It remained popular in China until the end of the Western Han Dynasty, when it was gradually replaced by official script. But because of its beautiful font, it has always been favored by calligraphers. And because its strokes are complex, its form is ancient, and twists and turns can be added at will, seals were carved in seal script, especially official seals that required anti-counterfeiting, until the fall of the feudal dynasty and the emergence of new anti-counterfeiting technology in modern times. All characters in the Kangxi dictionary are also written in Xiaozhuan.

Official Script

Official Script basically evolved from Seal Script. It mainly changed the round strokes of Seal Script into square folds. The writing speed is faster. It is difficult to write with lacquer on wooden slips. Make round strokes.

Official script is also called "official script" and "ancient script". Based on the seal script, the font produced in order to meet the needs of convenient writing is simplified in the small seal script, and the evenly rounded lines of the small seal script are turned into straight and square strokes to facilitate writing. It is divided into Qin Li (ancient Li) and Han Li (modern Li). scribe). The emergence of official script was a major change in ancient writing and calligraphy. Official script is a common solemn font in Chinese characters. The writing effect is slightly wide and flat, with long horizontal strokes and short straight strokes. It pays attention to "silkworm head and swallow tail" and "twists and turns". It originated in the Qin Dynasty and reached its peak in the Eastern Han Dynasty. It is known as "Han Li Tang Kai" in the calligraphy circle. It is also said that official script originated during the Warring States Period.

Official script is relative to seal script, and the name of official script originated from the Eastern Han Dynasty. The emergence of official script was another major reform of Chinese characters, which brought Chinese calligraphy art into a new realm. It was a turning point in the history of the evolution of Chinese characters and laid the foundation for regular script. The structure of official script is flat, neat and delicate. By the Eastern Han Dynasty, pointillism such as strokes and strokes had been transformed into upward strokes, with changes in light and heavy pauses and the beauty of calligraphy art. The styles are also becoming more diverse, which is of great value for artistic appreciation.

It is said that the official script was compiled by Cheng Miao of Qin Dynasty in prison. The complex was eliminated and simplified, the character shape was changed from round to square, and the strokes were changed from curved to straight. Change "continuous strokes" to "broken strokes" and move from lines to strokes, making it easier to write. "Liren" is not a prisoner, but refers to a "subordinate official", that is, a small official in charge of documents. Therefore, in ancient times, the official script was called "zuoshu". Official script became popular in the Han Dynasty and became the main style of writing. As the first Qin Li, many seal meanings were left, which were continuously developed and processed later. It broke the writing tradition since Zhou and Qin Dynasties and gradually laid the foundation for regular script. Under the unification of the idea of ??"deposing hundreds of schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone", the official script of the Han Dynasty gradually developed and became the dominant calligraphy style. At the same time, cursive script, regular script, and running script were derived, laying the foundation for art.

Regular script

Regular script, also known as Zhengshu, or real script, began in the Eastern Han Dynasty. Its characteristics are: square shape and straight strokes, which can be used as a model, hence the name. There are many famous regular script fonts, and they have created many representative fonts, such as "Ou style" (Ouyang Xun, Tang Dynasty), "Yu style" (Yu Shinan, Tang Dynasty), "Yan style" (Yan Zhenqing, Tang Dynasty), "Liu style" (Liu style) (Tang Dynasty, Yan Zhenqing) Liu Gongquan of the Tang Dynasty), "Zhao Ti" (Zhao Mengfu of the Song and Yuan Dynasties), etc. In the early stage of regular script, there are still very few official scripts left. The structure is slightly wider, with long horizontal strokes and short straight strokes. Among the Wei and Jin Dynasties handed down, such as Zhong Yao's "Declaration Table", "Jian Ji Zhi Table", Wang Xizhi's "Le Yi Lun" and "Huang Ting Jing", etc., can be regarded as representative works. Looking at its characteristics, as Weng Fanggang said: "The wave painting of the official script is changed, and the horizontal and straight lines of the ancient official script are still retained."

After the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the north and the south split, and calligraphy was also divided into two schools. The Northern style calligraphy has the legacy of the Han Dynasty. The writing style is clumsy and vigorous, but the style is simple and strict. It is better than the list of books. This is the so-called Wei stele. Southern calligraphy is more sparse, graceful and subtle, and is better than rulers and tablets. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, due to regional differences, personal habits and calligraphy styles were very different. The northern books are strong and the southern books are borrowed, and each is perfect, regardless of superiority or inferiority. However, Bao Shichen and Kang Youwei strongly praised the books of the two dynasties, especially the stele style of the Northern Wei Dynasty. Kang cited ten beautiful things to emphasize the advantages of Wei stele.

The regular script of the Tang Dynasty was like the prosperity of the country in the Tang Dynasty, which was truly unprecedented. The style of calligraphy is mature and calligraphers emerge in large numbers. In terms of regular script, Yu Shinan, Ouyang Xun, and Chu Suiliang in the early Tang Dynasty, Yan Zhenqing in the middle Tang Dynasty, and Liu Gongquan in the late Tang Dynasty all had their regular script works valued by later generations and regarded as models for calligraphy practice. Regular script is the standard commonly used in modern times.

Cursive script

Cursive script was formed in the Han Dynasty and evolved on the basis of official script for the convenience of writing. There are Zhangcao, Jincao and Kuangcao. Cursive script is a font created for the convenience of writing. It began in the early Han Dynasty. What was commonly used at that time was "Cao Li", that is, scrawled official script. Later, it gradually developed into a kind of "Zhang Cao" with artistic value. At the end of the Han Dynasty, Zhang Zhi changed "Zhangcao" to "Jincao", and the style of the characters was formed in one stroke. In the Tang Dynasty, Zhang Xu and Huai Su developed "Kang Cao" with continuous and convoluted strokes and numerous changes in glyphs. Cursive script is commonly used by calligraphers.

There are rules to follow when making changes in strokes.

Representative works include the Songjiang version of "Emergency Chapter" written by Emperor Wu of the Three Kingdoms period.

Jin Cao's writing is informal and smooth. Representative works include "The First Moon" and "De Shi" written by Wang Xizhi of the Jin Dynasty.

Cursive script appeared in the Tang Dynasty, represented by Zhang Xu and Huai Su, with wild and uninhibited brushstrokes. It became an artistic creation that was completely divorced from practicality. From then on, cursive script was just a calligraphy work copied by calligraphers. Representative works include Zhang Xu's "Tie of Belly Pain" and Huai Su's "Tie of Autobiography".

Running script

Running script was produced around the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty. It is a font between regular script and cursive script. It can be said to be the cursive version of regular script or the regular script version of cursive script. It was created to make up for the slow writing speed of regular script and the difficulty of legibility of cursive script. The writing style is not as sloppy as cursive script, nor is it required to be as straight as regular script. Those with more regular script than cursive script are called "Xingkai". Those with more cursive than regular script are called "Xingcao". Representative figures: "Two Kings": Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi.