1, mastectomy for trauma, burn or tumor, or nipple invagination infection or necrosis due to blood circulation disorder and infection after nipple lifting, resulting in nipple areola loss.
2. For transsexuals, there is no nipple or areola of corresponding size similar to that of women after operation. Besides breast reconstruction, nipple and areola should be reconstructed at the same time.
3. Patients with areola defect caused by other reasons.