The so-called placebo refers to a drug-like preparation composed of neutral substances that have neither curative effect nor toxic and side effects. Placebo is mostly composed of inert substances such as glucose and starch, and has no pharmacological effect. Placebo can have a good positive response to those patients who are eager for treatment and have full trust in medical staff, and have the expected efficacy. This reaction is called the placebo effect. People who are prone to corresponding psychological and physiological reactions when using placebos are called "placebos responders". This kind of person is characterized by sociability, strong dependence, susceptibility to suggestion, lack of self-confidence, and constant attention to various physiological changes and discomfort, hypochondriasis and nervousness.
2. Parkinson's law
Northgood Parkinson, a famous American historian, wrote a book called Parkinson's Law through long-term investigation and study, in which he expounded the reasons and consequences of the expansion of institutional personnel: an incompetent official may have three outlets. The first is to apply for resignation and give your seat to someone who has the ability; The second is to let a capable person help him with his work; The third is to appoint two people lower than themselves as assistants.
This first way is absolutely impossible, because it will lose a lot of power; You can't go the second way, because that capable person will become your opponent; It seems that only the third way is the most suitable. So, two mediocre assistants shared his work, and he gave orders from above. Two incompetent assistants are effective, and then find yourself two incompetent assistants. By analogy, a bloated, overstaffed, wrangling and inefficient leadership system has been formed. From this, we can draw a conclusion that in administrative management, the number of administrative institutions will increase like a pyramid, and the number of administrative personnel will expand. Everyone is very busy, but the organizational efficiency is getting lower and lower. This law is also called "pyramid rising" phenomenon.
3. First impression effect (first cause effect)
A psychologist once did an experiment: he asked two students to do half of 30 questions correctly, but asked student A to do the correct question as far as possible in the front 15 question, while asked student B to do the correct question as far as possible in the last 15 question, and then asked some subjects to evaluate the two students: Who is smarter than the other one? The results show that most of the subjects think that student A is smarter. This is the first impression effect. The first impression effect refers to the influence of the impression formed by the initial information on our future behavior and evaluation, and actually refers to the influence of the "first impression". The first impression effect is a well-known truth for women and children. Officials always attach great importance to the "three fires" at the beginning of taking office, and ordinary people also know the wonderful use of "runaway horses". Everyone tries to make a good "first impression" on others.
4. recency effect
A psychological phenomenon called recency effect is that what you know recently conceals what you have always known about someone. Psychologists' research shows that the first impression plays a greater role in the perception of strangers; For people who are familiar with it, it's easy to produce recency effect for their new performance. Recency effect is also very common in students' communication. For example, two students used to get along very well. A took good care of B, but recently B hated them for "offending" B, which belongs to recency effect. Similarly, in the process of students' growth, most people can't always leave a good first impression, which requires the class teacher to constantly improve his ability and enhance his attraction; Second, we should constantly encourage students to make progress, let them show themselves to outsiders with a new attitude, and constantly encourage students to make progress.
The so-called recency effect refers to the influence of the last contact on social perception in the process of communication.
The first cause effect generally plays an important role in the perception of strangers, while recency effect plays an important role among familiar people. People with frequent contacts and long-term ambiguity often take each other's last impression as the basis for understanding and evaluation. And often make the other person's interpersonal communication and interpersonal relationship change qualitatively and quantitatively. In real life, the breakdown of friendship, the estrangement between husband and wife, and the breakup of friends are all related to recency effect.
Recency effect made us evaluate a person or interpersonal relationship only on the basis of human temporary events, which separated the relationship between history and reality, phenomenon and essence, and made it impossible for us to look at people and objective facts objectively and historically, which often caused psychological conflicts between people, affected our objective and correct evaluation and judgment of people and things, and had a negative impact on our actual work and life.
5, halo effect, halo effect
Halo effect was first put forward by the famous American psychologist Edward Thorndike in the 1920s. In his view, people's cognition and judgment of people often only start from the part and spread it to get the overall impression, that is, they often generalize from the partial. If a person is marked as good, he will be shrouded in a positive aura and be endowed with all good qualities; If a person is marked as bad, he is shrouded in a negative aura and is considered to have all kinds of bad qualities. It's like a circle around the moon on the eve of windy weather. In fact, this ring is just an extension of the moon's light. Accordingly, Thorndike gave this psychological phenomenon a proper term "halo effect", also known as "halo effect".
Psychologist Dane did such an experiment. He showed the subjects some photos, some of which were attractive, some were unattractive and some were ordinary. Then, the subjects were asked to rate the characteristics of these people that had nothing to do with attractiveness. The results show that the subjects give attractive people more ideal personality characteristics than unattractive people, such as kindness, calmness and sociability.
The halo effect is often manifested not only in judging a person by his appearance, but also in judging his body by his clothes and his talents by his words. This effect is especially obvious when evaluating unfamiliar people.
From the cognitive point of view, the halo effect is only based on the individual characteristics of things, grasping the essence or all the characteristics of things and drawing conclusions, which is very one-sided. Therefore, in interpersonal communication, we should pay attention to warning ourselves not to be influenced by the halo effect of others and fall into the misunderstanding of halo effect.
6. Hawthorne effect
Hawthorne experiment is based on scientific management logic. From 1924 to 1932, there were two rounds in nearly eight years: the first round was from1924165438+10 to 1927. The second round is 1927 to 1932, hosted by Mayo. The whole experiment has gone through four stages.
The first stage, workshop lighting experiment-"lighting experiment"
The purpose of illumination experiment is to understand the influence of illumination intensity on production efficiency. The experiment lasted two and a half years. But the lighting experiment was not successful, and the result was puzzling, so many people quit the experiment.
The second stage, relay assembly experiment-"welfare experiment"
1927, Mayo accepted the invitation, organized a group of professors from Harvard University to set up a new research group, and started Hawthorne's second-stage "welfare experiment".
The purpose of "welfare experiment" is to find out the factors that affect the enthusiasm of employees more effectively. Mayo and his colleagues summarized the experimental results and ruled out four hypotheses: (1) improving the material conditions and working methods in the experiment can lead to an increase in output; (2) arranging rest and shortening the working day can alleviate or alleviate fatigue; (3) Taking a break can reduce the monotony of work; (4) Individual piece rate can promote the increase of output. Finally, the conclusion that "changing the supervision and control mode can improve interpersonal relationship, improve workers' working attitude and promote output increase" is drawn.
Stage 3, large-scale interview plan-"interview experiment"
Since the experiment shows that the management mode is closely related to the rural customs and labor productivity of employees, it is necessary to know what opinions employees have on the existing management mode and provide a basis for improving the management mode. So Mayo and others made an interview plan and asked for the opinions of employees. In less than two years from September 1928 to May 1930, researchers interviewed about 20,000 employees in the factory.
In the process of implementing the interview plan, the researchers analyzed the workers' complaints during the conversation, and found that the facts that caused their dissatisfaction were not the same as those they complained about, and the expression of workers' dissatisfaction with them was not consistent with their deep psychological dissatisfaction. For example, a worker shows dissatisfaction with the low piece-rate salary, but after in-depth understanding, it is found that this worker is worried about paying his wife's medical expenses.
According to these analyses, researchers realize that employees' attention to personal problems will affect their work efficiency. So managers should understand these problems of workers. Therefore, it is necessary to train managers, especially grass-roots managers, so that they can become interviewers who can listen to and understand workers, attach importance to human factors, and be more enthusiastic and care about them when getting along with workers, which can promote the improvement of interpersonal relationships and the improvement of employee morale.
The fourth stage, the studio experiment of relay winding group-"group experiment"
This is an experiment about workers' groups, the purpose of which is to prove that in the above experiments, researchers seem to feel that there is an informal organization among workers, and this informal organization has an extremely important influence on workers' attitudes.
In order to systematically observe the interaction between workers in the experimental group, the experimenter selected 14 male workers in the workshop, including 9 winding workers, 3 welding workers and 2 inspectors, and let them work in separate rooms.
At the beginning of the experiment, the researchers explained to the workers that they could work as hard as possible because the piece-rate system was implemented here. The researchers thought that the implementation of this set of measures would make employees work harder, but the result was unexpected. In fact, the actual output of workers is only kept at a medium level, and the daily output of each worker is similar. According to the action and time analysis, each worker has to complete the standard quota of 73 12 welding points, but the workers only complete 6000 ~ 6600 welding points every day, so they quit, even if there is plenty of time before leaving work. What is the reason? Through observation, researchers know that the reason why workers automatically limit production is that if they work too hard, other colleagues may lose their jobs, or the company will set a higher production quota.
In order to understand the difference of their abilities, the researchers also tested the sensitivity and intelligence of everyone in the experimental group, and found that the three winding workers with the slowest production scored the highest in the sensitivity test. Among them, 1 the slowest worker ranks first in the intelligence test and third in the sensitivity test. This relationship between test results and actual output reminds researchers of the importance of the group to these workers. 1 Laborers can gain a larger share of the total group wages by increasing their own output, thus reducing the possibility of unemployment. But these material rewards will bring punishment to the group, so they can live with peace of mind as long as they complete the workload recognized by the group every day. Even in some small things, we can find different factions among the workers. Network workers often argue about the opening and closing of a window, and over time, we can see the different factions between them.
Experimental conclusion
1, changing working conditions is not directly related to labor efficiency;
2. The decisive factor to improve production efficiency is employees' mood, not working conditions; Laborers are "social people". Hawthorne and others tried to find out the relationship between working conditions and production efficiency under the human nature model of "economic man". However, with the deepening of the experiment, the hypothesis of "economic man" was passively shaken. Hawthorne finally put forward that the mode of human nature is "social man", that is, employees not only pursue economic income, but also have social and psychological needs. As Maslow later pointed out, demand is multi-level and multi-faceted. Therefore, first of all, we should encourage workers to improve labor productivity from both social and psychological aspects.
3. Caring about employees' emotions and dissatisfaction is helpful to improve labor productivity. The new way of leadership lies in improving the satisfaction of employees. Hawthorne believes that the purpose of managers is to make people cooperate to achieve the same goal of the organization. In order to achieve cooperation, we must develop a new way of leadership. Under this new leadership style, on the one hand, managers must produce and distribute material materials to meet the material and economic needs of members, that is, give full play to technical skills; On the other hand, in order to meet the material needs of members, we should ensure the spontaneous cooperation between members, so that everyone can meet people's needs, that is, play social skills.
In addition to formal organizations, enterprises also have informal organizations. Hawthorne believes that there are not only "formal organizations" in enterprises, but also informal groups formed by people working together. They have their own norms, emotions and tendencies, which affect the behavior of each member of the group. For example, the nursing home in Xiang army and the association in school. "Informal organization" has both advantages and disadvantages for the organization. If managers want to implement effective management, they should pay attention to keeping a balance between the emotional logic of informal organizations and the efficiency logic of formal organizations.
7. Decentralization of responsibilities
1March, 964 13 At 3: 20 pm, in front of an apartment on the outskirts of new york, a young woman named Juno Bibi was assassinated on her way home from work in a bar. When she cried out in despair, "Someone is going to kill someone! Help! Help! " Residents nearby heard the shouts, turned on the lights and opened the window, and the murderer escaped. Everything calmed down and the murderer came back to commit the crime. When she shouted again, the nearby residents turned on the lights again and the murderer ran away again. When she thought she had nothing to do and went back to her home to go upstairs, the murderer appeared in front of her again and killed her on the stairs. In the process, although she shouted for help, at least 38 people in her neighbors went to the window to watch, but no one came to save her, or even called the police. This incident caused a sensation in new york society, and also attracted the attention and thinking of social psychologists. People call this phenomenon the responsibility of many bystanders spreading from bankruptcy.
Psychologists have conducted a lot of experiments and investigations on the causes of the spread of responsibility, and the results show that this phenomenon can be said to be not only people's apathy, but also the increasingly decadent morality. Because on different occasions, people's aid behavior is really different. When a person encounters an emergency, if he is the only one who can help, he will clearly realize his responsibility and give help to the victims. If he feels guilty from destruction, it will cost him a high psychological price. If there are many people present, the responsibility of helping those who ask for help will be shared by everyone, resulting in scattered responsibilities. Everyone shares little responsibility, and bystanders may not even realize their own responsibility, thus creating a psychology of "I don't save, others save" and causing a situation of "collective indifference". How to break this situation is an important topic that psychologists are studying.
8. Flight helplessness effect
Learned helplessness was first discovered by Auvermeer and Seligman, and then widely discussed in animal and human studies. In short, many experiments show that after training, dogs can jump over obstacles or engage in other behaviors to escape the electric shock applied to them by experimenters. However, if the dog has been subjected to unpredictable (I don't know when it will come) and uncontrollable electric shock before (for example, the interruption of the electric shock does not depend on the dog's behavior), when the dog has a chance to escape from the electric shock later, it will become impossible to escape. Moreover, dogs will also show other defects, such as feeling depressed and depressed, reducing initiative and so on.
Dogs behave this way because they learned to feel helpless in the early stage of the experiment. In other words, they realize that no matter what they do, they can't control the termination of the electric shock. In each experiment, the termination of electric shock is under the control of the experimenter, and the dog will realize that he has no ability to change this external control, thus learning a sense of helplessness.
If people produce learned helplessness, it will become a deep despair and sorrow. Therefore, we should broaden our horizons in our study and life, see clearly the real decisive factors behind the incident, and don't let ourselves fall into despair.
9. Rosenthal effect
American psychologist Rosenthal and others did a famous experiment in 1968. They went to a primary school, and selected three classes of children from grade one to grade six for a serious "test to predict future development". Then the experimenter informed the teacher of the list of students who thought they had "excellent development possibilities". In fact, this list is not determined according to the test results, but is randomly selected. It hints at teachers with "authoritative lies", thus arousing teachers' expectations of the students on the list. Eight months later, the results of the intelligence test found that the students on the list generally improved their grades and the teachers gave them good moral evaluation. This experiment has achieved miraculous results. People call this phenomenon that students can make the progress expected by teachers through the subtle influence on students' psychology "Rosenthal effect", which is also commonly known as pygmalion effect (Pygmalion was the king of Cyprus in ancient Greek mythology, and he took a fancy to a girl's statue, and his desire finally turned the statue into a real person, and the two fell in love and combined).
Educational practice also shows that if teachers love some students, they will have high expectations. After a period of time, students will feel the care, love and encouragement of teachers. Often treat teachers, study and their own behavior with a positive attitude, students will be more self-respecting, confident, self-loving and self-reliant, thus inducing positive passion. These students tend to make progress that teachers expect. On the contrary, those students who are ignored and discriminated by teachers will feel the teacher's "eccentricity" from the teacher's words, behaviors and expressions over time, and will also treat the teacher and their own learning with a negative attitude, ignoring or refusing to listen to the teacher's requirements; These students tend to get worse every day, and finally become social undesirable elements. Although there are exceptions, this is the general trend, and it also sounded the alarm for teachers.
10, broken window effect
Wilson, a political scientist, and Karin, a criminologist, put forward the theory of "broken window effect", arguing that if someone breaks the window glass of a building and this window is not maintained in time, others may indulge in some suggestive ways to break more windows. Over time, these broken windows give people a sense of disorder. Therefore, in the insensitive atmosphere of the public, crime will breed and prosper.
New york traffic police chief bratton was inspired by "broken window theory". The subway in new york is considered as a place where people can do whatever they want. In view of the soaring crime rate in new york subway, bratton has taken measures to appeal to all traffic policemen to seriously publicize the laws on "quality of life". He took broken window theory as his teacher, and despite the increase in major criminal cases in subway stations, he made every effort to crack down on fare evasion. It turns out that one out of every seven ticket evaders is a wanted criminal; One in every twenty ticket evaders carries a murder weapon. As a result, since the evasion of tickets was caught, the crime rate in subway stations has actually dropped and the public security has been greatly improved. His practice shows that minor crimes are hotbeds of violent crimes. Because these seemingly small but symbolic violations have been vigorously rectified, criminal offences have been greatly reduced.
In Japan, there is a quality management activity called "Red Card War". Japanese companies put warning "red cards" on oily and unclean equipment, and also put "red cards" on dead corners of offices and workshops to promote their rapid improvement, make the workplace clean and tidy, and create a comfortable and orderly working atmosphere. Under such a positive hint, over time, everyone abides by the rules and works hard. Practice has proved that the neatness of this work phenomenon plays a very important role in ensuring the product quality of enterprises.
From the "broken window effect", we can get a truth: the existence of any kind of bad phenomenon is transmitting a message, which will lead to the infinite expansion of bad phenomena, and at the same time, we should be highly alert to those seemingly accidental, individual and slight "faults". If we turn a blind eye to this kind of behavior, turn a blind eye, be slow to respond or fail to correct it, we will indulge more people to "break the rules"