Peter I quickly set off a wave of comprehensive study of advanced western political, economic and military systems in Russia. At the same time, western ideological civilization has a subtle influence on Russia: if we go to see Tolstoy's War and Peace today, we can still find many French words from it. In the process of learning from the west, the children of Russian aristocrats gradually came into contact with western civilization and began to think about the present situation in Russia. In the late Napoleonic Wars, Russian troops counterattacked Paris all the way. In this process, Russian officers and men who had personal contact with western civilization began to have more and more doubts about the autocratic system.
1825165438+1October 19 czar Alexander I who defeated Napoleon died of sudden illness. Since he left no children, the throne should be inherited by his second brother Constantine. At that time, Constantine was appointed as the Russian governor in Poland, and Alexander I and Constantine's younger brother Nikolai were in Petersburg, the Russian capital. According to our traditional thinking concept, the temptation of power under authoritarian rule is enough to overcome family ties. Nicholas, who is in Beijing, can completely block the news, and then claim that his brother has confirmed himself as the heir before his death. However, Nicholas did not do this, but immediately sent someone to ask his second brother Constantine, who was far away in Poland, to return to Beijing to succeed him.
More dramatically, Constantine explicitly refused to return to Beijing to succeed him. It turned out that he fell in love with a polish civilian woman, and he was willing to give up the throne and his noble title to live in Poland for her, so he replied to his third brother Nicholas: he wanted to give up the throne and let Nicholas succeed. Nicholas did not inherit the throne after receiving the reply from his second brother, but led Beijing officials to swear allegiance to his second brother Constantine. At the same time, however, Constantine, who was in Poland, also led his men to swear allegiance to Nicholas. Tsarist Russia, regarded as the bastion of European autocracy, actually gave up the throne. Constantine and Nicholas's brother gave way to the drama, which directly led to the The Decemberists Uprising.
After witnessing the national democratic revolutions in France, Germany, Italy and other places, a group of Russian officers and men who made expeditions to Western Europe in the Napoleonic Wars, with dissatisfaction with Russian serfdom and autocracy, launched an uprising on June 65438+February 65438+April 4. Because Constantine, who was in Poland at that time, strongly supported the Polish Constitution, he was regarded as a constitutional advocate by the insurgents. They hoped that Constantine would inherit the throne and then transform Russia's autocratic monarchy into a constitutional monarchy, so they fought? We want Constantine, we want the constitution? Slogan. The December Party Uprising ended the abdication of the throne between Constantine and Nicholas.
Nicholas immediately announced his succession to the throne and began to suppress the uprising. Although the uprising was quelled, it dealt the earliest blow to Russia's autocratic rule, and Russia entered the revolutionary period from then on. In fact, the seeds of the February Revolution and the October Revolution were first sown at this moment. /kloc-In the second half of the 0/9th century, Russia almost became the meeting place of various new western thoughts: absolutism, constitutionalism, * * * productism, anarchism ... Almost all the thoughts that existed at that time can be found in Russia. Russia July 1853? 1The reality of the defeat of the British and French allied forces in the Crimean War in February 855 deeply stimulated the Russian rulers.
The abolition of serfdom by czar Alexander II is one of the manifestations of this stimulus. After the abolition of serfdom, Russia's commodity economy has been greatly developed: modern forms of service rent and employment production began to appear in rural areas, and capitalist production relations began to sprout in rural areas. The development of Russian capitalist economy reached its climax after the reform of serfdom, but at the same time, the whole country was still bound by many feudal remnants. When the western countries achieved rapid development in the second industrial revolution, Russia gradually declined, so that it eventually became? The weakest link in the imperialist chain? .
The Russo-Japanese War of 1904~ 1905 exposed the decadent state of tsarist Russia. The humiliation of defeat and the poor living conditions of the people caused a revolutionary wave in Russia: 19051On October 22nd, people who petitioned the czar were shot dead in the Winter Palace Square, which quickly caused a nationwide uproar. The czar government arrested 26,000 people and sentenced 5,086 of them to death. However, severe repression not only didn't help, but aroused people's stronger resistance. 19 14 the riddled czarist Russia intervened in the first world war, but the decline of Russia was quickly exposed: in the year of 19 15 alone, the Russian army lost 2 million people, which even exceeded the total number of Russian standing armies before the war.
Russia, bound by feudal remnants, has a very low degree of industrialization, and it can't meet the weapons supply needed for the war at all: among the120,000 people defending the fifth army in Riga,120,000 people have no weapons. From the autumn of 19 15, Russia's transportation system was completely paralyzed by the war, followed by an increasingly severe food crisis: the grain-producing areas in western Russia were occupied by German and Austrian troops, but thousands of tons of meat in the rear could not be transported because of traffic conditions. At that time, after the light entered 19 17, people became more and more impatient with the authorities: in June this year, the capital Petrograd had only 10 day of flour reserves, and the meat had already been completely out of stock, so the factory had to stop production due to lack of fuel and electricity.
65438+1On October 22nd, Petrograd 15000 workers went on strike, and by February, the number of strikers nationwide reached 700,000. The situation in the capital Petrograd is out of control: strikes, demonstrations and riots are everywhere. The czar ordered a severe crackdown, but the army did not obey his orders. On the morning of March 12, the teaching team of the Warren regiment of the Guard Corps refused to carry out the order to suppress the riot, turned their guns and killed the captain. This incident quickly triggered a chain reaction: 60,000 troops stationed in the capital rebelled that day, and the ministers of the czar's government were arrested by the rebellious troops. According to the Russian calendar, it was February, so later generations called this event the February Revolution.
After the February Revolution, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, and the idea of being succeeded by the Crown Prince or his younger brother ended in failure, thus ending the Romanov dynasty that lasted for more than 300 years. George? Duke Lviv established a new government, and the leader of the Constitutional Democratic Party, Paul? Miliukov became foreign minister, socialist Alexander? Kerensky became the Minister of Justice, thus forming a bourgeois interim government. In the course of strikes and armed uprisings, workers in Petrograd established a new regime? Soviet, thus forming a situation in which the bourgeois interim government and the Soviet two regimes coexist. The period from1965438+March 2007 to165438+1October was a period of struggle between the two regimes.
In the process of this struggle, the interim government was in an extremely unfavorable position, because it refused to consider the two major issues of peace and land that the people were most concerned about from the beginning. Duke Lviv and his ministers insisted that important issues such as land redistribution could not be decided until the Constitutional Convention was held, and the interim government refused to announce its withdrawal from the world war. The provisional government demanded the people's patience on the grounds that Russia had military obligations to its allies, so that Russian farmers still did not get the land they dreamed of, and Russia must continue to struggle in the quagmire of war; In contrast, the Soviet regime demanded immediate peace and immediate redistribution of land.
Obviously, the latter's propaganda is more popular politically. On June+10, 5438, the Bolshevik Party led by Lenin had achieved a leading position in the Soviet regime. 1917165438+1October 7 (65438+Russian calendar1October 25) The October Revolution launched by the Bolshevik Party overthrew the bourgeois provisional government and established the Russian Soviet Federalist Socialist Republic (hereinafter referred to as the Soviet Union) The white army forces, composed of the remnants of the czar regime and the interim government, subsequently fought a civil war with the newly born Soviet Russian regime for nearly five years. The situation in the early days of the civil war was extremely unfavorable to the Soviet regime and the Red Army: all kinds of rebel white troops spread all over the country.
The forces of the White Army not only occupied most of Russia's territory on a large scale, but also surrounded the core areas controlled by the Soviet regime from all directions. The activities of the White Army were also supported by the Allied Group:1965438+On March 6, 2008, the intervention troops composed of Britain, France and the United States landed in Murmansk one after another. On April 5, intervention troops from Japan, Britain and the United States landed in Vladivostok. From June 19 19 to June 1920, the allied forces completely blocked the Soviet coast. At this time, the Soviet regime had to face the situation that the White Army was fighting internally and the allies were providing support to the White Army externally.
At that time, the huge White Army formed a big encirclement of the Soviet regime in China: the Soviet Red Army had to face 700,000 white troops on the east, south and north fronts. At this time, the Volga River basin, Ukraine, Caucasus, Central Asia, Urals, Siberia and most parts of the Far East were controlled by the White Army or foreign intervention forces. Major industries such as coal, steel and oil were controlled by the White Army, and the White Army troops also occupied the grain-producing areas of the grasslands in southern Russia. By 1920, the Red Army had to face a new enemy with the intervention of the White Army and the Allies, because Poland declared war on the Soviet Union and Russia this year.
Although the situation faced by the Soviet regime at this time seems quite bad on the surface, the Soviet regime also has its own advantages. Historical experience has proved countless times that fighting is a scientific and systematic project, and only by mobilizing various strategic resources efficiently can we win the war. The power of the White Army looks huge, but it is not a unified force: there are royalists who support the czar government, social revolutionaries who support the bourgeois interim government, Cossack officers and even bandits. Although these forces are consistent in opposing the Soviet regime, they have no common interests in other aspects.
Therefore, from beginning to end, the White Army never really formed a party. Foreign intervention forces that provide support to various white armies also have their own opinions, so it is impossible to act in a unified and coordinated manner. In contrast, under the strong leadership of the Bolshevik Party, the Soviet regime fully mobilized various resources to support the front. Although the White Army once controlled 3/4 of Russia's land, Siberia, Central Asia and other places were the marginal areas of the former Russian empire, and the core areas (especially Petrograd and Moscow) were always in the hands of the Soviet regime. No matter how much territory the White Army occupied, railway traffic was always controlled by the Soviet regime.
Because the Soviet regime mastered the advantages of railway transportation, the Red Army was more relaxed in the transportation and supply of troops and logistics materials, and the tactical cooperation of troops. The Bolshevik Party's program is to make the proletariat the master of the country. Every day, the White Army clamored to overthrow the Bolshevik Party, but failed to come up with a clear plan on how to govern the country: some White Army forces advocated the restoration of the czar government, some White Army forces advocated the establishment of a bourgeois government, and some White Army forces had no specific political intentions and just wanted to take the mountain as the king. The Soviet regime with a clear program won the support of workers, peasants and other grassroots people by meeting the people's demands for peace and land.
By the end of 1920, the Soviet regime had basically defeated all major enemies. The Japanese intervention troops in Siberia finally retreated1October 25th, 1922. In the past, tsarist Russia developed into a multi-ethnic country in the process of expanding to Ukraine, Caucasus, Siberia and Central Asia. After the October Revolution, all ethnic groups in Russia established their own independent countries or autonomous republics. In the war with the White Army and foreign intervention forces, the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic fought side by side with the Soviet regimes in Ukraine, Belarus, Caucasus and other places. After the victory of the civil war, the Soviet regime needs to coordinate its relations with the Soviet regimes in these minority areas.
At that time, western capitalist countries hoped that Russia would split into a nation-state like the Ottoman Empire. As a revolutionary mentor, Lenin wrote articles such as Ethnic Issues in Our Program, Criticism of Ethnic Issues, On the Right of National Self-determination, Summary of Debate on the Right of National Self-determination, and Draft Outline of Ethnic and Colonial Issues. Lenin systematically expounded his national thoughts in these articles: all ethnic groups in the former Russian empire can exercise autonomy, but they should unite to form a unified Soviet family. Lenin hoped to change the tense state of ethnic relations in the Russian era in this way.
After the end of the civil war and the beginning of the socialist construction period, the production parties of the Soviet republics put forward a joint issue in order to unify national defense construction and economic construction. 1922 In August, the Bolshevik Central Committee established a special committee with Stalin as its chairman, and put forward a plan for all Soviet republics to join the Russian Federation as autonomous republics. This plan was opposed by Georgian leaders, and Lenin finally suggested that all Soviet republics join the Union of Soviet Republics on the principle of equality and voluntariness. 1922 10 On the basis of Lenin's suggestion, the Central Plenary Session discussed and adopted the new plan of the Union of Soviet Republics.
1922, 1922 On February 30, 2022, the Russian Federation, Ukraine, Belarus and the South Caucasus Federation formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (referred to as the Soviet Union). At that time, only the Russian Federation, Ukraine, Belarus and the South Caucasus Federation joined the alliance. 1924, the Soviet Union divided Central Asia according to ethnic groups. 1925, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan joined the Soviet Union. So far, there are six Soviet republics, fifteen autonomous republics and sixteen autonomous prefectures. 192910 June 16 The Tajik Autonomous Republic, which belongs to the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, became the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic and formally joined the Soviet Union on February 5 of the same year.
1936, the Soviet Union demarcated the territory of Central Asia again according to national attributes, and Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan were upgraded from autonomous republics to republics. The ethnic demarcation work of the Soviet Union in Central Asia also had a certain impact on the Caucasus. Finally, the South Caucasus Federation, as one of the first four Soviet countries to join the Republic of * * *, split into three countries to join the Republic of * * *: Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. So far, there are 1 1 countries in the Soviet Union, including Russian Federation, Ukraine, Belarus, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.
19 18165438+1018 Poland used the situation caused by the first world war and the Russian revolution to declare its independence and occupied the western regions of Ukraine and Belarus. After the war with Poland, the new Soviet regime signed peace treaties with neighboring countries Estonia, Latvia, Finland and Lithuania, thus formally recognizing the independence of these areas that originally belonged to tsarist Russia. After the Soviet-Polish War, the newly-born Soviet regime lost its sovereignty over western Ukraine, western Belarus, the west coast of the Baltic Sea and eastern Finland west of the Coulson Line. After Finland's independence, a considerable number of Finns still lived in the Soviet Union.
From 1923 to 1940, an autonomous Republic of Karelia was established in Karelia, where Finns lived in compact communities. At this time, Karelia was not a * * * republic of the Soviet Union, but an autonomous * * * republic under the jurisdiction of the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic, one of the * * * republics of the Soviet Union. 1939 In September, Nazi Germany attacked Poland. About half a month later, the Soviet Union sent troops to occupy the eastern part of Poland in the name of protecting Ukrainians and Belarusians in Poland. In June+10 of this year, the Soviet Union proposed territorial replacement on the grounds that the Finnish border was too close to Leningrad, but Finland refused, and the Sino-Finnish war broke out immediately.
Although the Soviet Red Army is struggling in Finland, Finland is worried that the protracted war will bring great harm to itself. Finally, on March 1940, the two sides made peace, and Finland ceded the whole of karelian isthmus, together with the city of Vipuli, Vipuli Bay, the northwest coast of Lake Ladoga, the territory east of Markazilvi, a part of Rebach and Slatney Peninsula, and some islands in the Gulf of Finland. On March 3 1940 and March 3 1, the Soviet Union handed over the territory obtained from Finland to Karelia. At the same time, the autonomous Republic of Karelia was officially upgraded to the Karelia-Finland Soviet Socialist Republic, and the Karelia-Finland Soviet Socialist Republic was officially upgraded to a member republic.
1in June, 940, the Soviet government sent a note to Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia along the Baltic Sea, demanding that the three countries reorganize their governments to hold general elections and allow the Soviet Red Army to pass freely. Then 300,000 Soviet Red Army entered the three countries to foster pro-Su Zhengquan, and then the three countries joined the Soviet Union and became a member of the Republic. On June 26th of the same year, the Soviet Union sent a note to the Romanian government, demanding that Bissalabia and North Bukovina be handed over to the Soviet Union. Bissalabia was first seized from the Ottoman Turkish Empire by the then Tsarist Russia after the Seventh Russian-Turkish War 1805- 18 12. This land once belonged to Romania in history.
But when Russia occupied Bissalabia, Romania was under the rule of Ottoman Turkish Empire, so Russia occupied this area in the name of liberating Slavic compatriots. 1May 9, 877 Romania can only face the fait accompli that Bissalabia has been occupied by Russia since its independence from the Ottoman Turkish Empire. During the First World War, Romania took advantage of the chaos in Russia to recover Bissalabia, which the emerging Soviet regime refused to recognize after the October Revolution. The Soviet Union believes that Bissalabia was forcibly seized by Romania in 19 18 by taking advantage of Russia's post-war weakness, and now the post-war weakness of the Soviet Union has become a thing of the past.
North Bukovina was used as Romania's compensation for the losses caused by the Soviet Union during the 22-year rule of Bissalabia. On June 30th, the Soviet Union sent troops to occupy Bissalabia and North Bukovina. On August 2nd, supreme soviet of the ussr passed a resolution: North Bukovina will be merged into Ukraine to join the Republic of * * *, while Bissalabia will establish Moldavia to join the Republic of * * * (later renamed Moldova). So far, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Karelia, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania have joined 16 countries.
1956, 16 In July, Karelia's membership in the * * * Republic was cancelled and it became an autonomous * * Republic under the Russian Federation again. Since then, the number of member States has remained at 15 until the disintegration of the Soviet Union. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, 15 participating countries all became independent sovereign countries. Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia did not join the CIS formed by the former Soviet Union from the beginning, and now all three countries have joined NATO and the European Union. In August 2005, Turkmenistan announced its withdrawal from the CIS. On August 18, 2009, Georgia withdrew from the CIS. On March 20 14, Ukraine started the withdrawal procedure due to the Crimea issue.